Investigations into the tendency to stress corrosion of joints welded in austenitic and duplex steels

Austenitic stainless steel is welded as a cladding on the inner surface of a reactor pressure vessel (RPV) made of low alloy steel. In order to assess the structural integrity of the RPV precisely, the residual stress distribution caused by weld-overlay cladding and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is evaluated. Since the cladding layer is very thin compared to the vessel wall, it is necessary to evaluate the residual stress distribution around the weld fusion line, which can be very steep. In this study, cladded specimens were fabricated using different welding methods. Residual stress measurements using both sectioning and deep hole drilling (DHD) methods were then performed to evaluate the residual stress distributions through the weld fusion line. Three-dimensional thermal-elastic-plastic-creep analyses based on the finite element method were also conducted to evaluate the residual stress caused by weld-overlay cladding and PWHT. It was shown that analytical results provided reasonable agreements on weld residual stress with experimental results. It was also clarified that the main cause of residual stress due to welding and PWHT was the difference of thermal expansion between weld and base metals.     

Evolution of residual stresses in dissimilar steel surfacing layers during process of post-weld heat treatment

Abstract

Residual stress relaxation during post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is a thermodynamic process, which is affected not only by the heat treatment process, but also by the welding residual stress. In this study, the residual stresses in as welded and heat treated surfacing metal were measured using blind hole and X-ray method. The results reveal that the welding residual stresses are compressive at the surface of the weld and tensile at inner weld. However, after PWHT, the residual stresses at surface and inner weld change to the opposite state. Finite element simulations show that the differences of expansion coefficients between base metal and filler material are the main factor to the changes of stress state. The experimental results verify that the expansion coefficients of base metal and filler materials have been changed greatly after long soaking at high temperature.     

核用SA508-3钢特厚板焊后热处理有限元分析

为了得到SA508-3钢特厚板焊接残余应力分布及焊后热处理对残余应力分布的影响,利用有限元方法对焊接及焊后热处理进行了模拟计算,计算结果表明:焊后热处理对试板焊接应力分布趋势影响较小,但焊后热处理可以大大减小接头应力数值,其中,纵向应力最大减小幅度为72%,横向应力最大减小幅度为70%;焊接接头存在应力分布准稳定区,且接头内部残余应力水平最小,其次为接头上表面,接头下表面应力水平最大;通过残余应力测定试验与模拟结果比对,两者结果吻合度很高,说明计算模型及计算方法可靠,可以指导实际SA508-3钢特厚板焊后热处理生产.     

In situ neutron diffraction measurement of strain relaxation in welds during heat treatment

Neutron diffraction (ND) is commonly used to investigate the stress redistribution before and after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) in welded structures. However, there is a lack of information on the evaluations of strains during PWHT. The present work employed in situ ND to measure the relaxation of residual strains during conventional PWHT in multi-pass high-strength low-alloy steel welds. It was found that strain relaxation occurs principally during the heating stage of the heat treatment. The findings have important economic bearings and can be used to characterise comparable material combinations and optimise the PWHT process for high-strength low-alloy weld joints. This unique information also provides a valuable benchmark for the finite element modelling of this complex process.     

焊后热处理对特厚板20MnNiMo焊接残余应力的影响

为了研究焊后热处理对8万吨模锻压机主缸材料20MnNiMo焊接接头残余应力的影响,制定了窄间隙焊接方案和15 h×(550±10)℃焊后热处理方案,并通过盲孔法对焊接接头表面残余应力进行了测定和记录。得到了15 h×(550±10)℃焊后热处理对20MnNiMo厚板焊接接头残余应力场分布的影响。结果表明:15 h×(550±10)℃去应力退火可以很好的减小20MnNiMo厚板焊接残余应力,去应力效果显著,可以很好地改善20MnNiMo焊接残余应力的分布,该热处理方案满足实际产品需要,可以用于实际焊接生产中。     

Influence of Temperature and Time of Post-weld Heat Treatment on Stress Relief in an 800-mm-Thick Steel Weldment

Ferritic steel weldments are invariably post-weld heat treated for relieving the residual stresses. However, the long duration of post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) required for very thick weldments can adversely affect the mechanical properties and fracture toughness. Thus, there is a need to establish the relative importance of temperature and time of PWHT with respect to stress relief. Accordingly, in the present work, the phenomenon of stress relief (due to PWHT) in an 800-mm-thick steel weldment was investigated using finite element analysis and the results were validated against experimental measurements. An analytical study was also carried out to determine the relative influence of temperature and time of PWHT on stress relief. It was found that time of PWHT plays a more significant role in case of relatively lower PWHT temperatures. It was also found that, for a given value of Hollomon parameter, different combinations of PWHT temperature and time can be employed to achieve the same level of stress relief. A mathematical relationship has been established between Hollomon parameter and magnitude of residual stress after PWHT. It has been shown that residual stress is a monotonically decreasing function of the Hollomon parameter.     

Modifying residual stress levels in rail flash-butt welds using localised rapid post-weld heat treatment and accelerated cooling

Abstract

Flash-butt welding is used in the manufacture of continuously-welded rails. Finished welds typically exhibit high tensile residual stresses in the rail web and at the upper surface of the rail foot, which may increase the risk of fatigue failure in service. An understanding of the influence of the welding process, including post-weld cooling, on the residual stress distribution is necessary to improve the performance of flash-butt welds by post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), since incorrect treatment may have adverse effects on both residual stress and weld material characteristics. A finite element model has been developed to simulate post-weld cooling in flash-butt welded AS60 kg m^–1 rail. Computed thermal histories for normal (air) cooling, rapid PWHT, and accelerated cooling (water spray) were used as inputs to calculate sequentially coupled stress–time histories, including phase transformations. In addition, the localised influence of the initiation time for rapid PWHT, after final upset, on the reduction of tensile residual stresses was investigated. Heating the rail foot immediately after final upset reduced tensile residual stresses in the web region of the weld. Preliminary numerical predictions showed that water quenching the entire weld region too soon after the austenite–pearlite transformation is completed can induce further tensile residual stresses without affecting the microstructure. The results of the numerical analysis can be used to modify the flash-butt welding procedure to lower residual stress levels, and hence improve weld performance.     

Internal residual stress measurement on inertia friction welding of nickel-based superalloy

The internal residual stress in the narrow inertia friction welding (IFW) welds of FGH96 nickel-based superalloy was measured with the contour method (CM). The as-welded internal hoop and axial residual stresses were obtained after two cuts and the detailed steps of the CM measurement were described. In addition, the hole-drilling method was used to obtain the surface stress. Furthermore, the internal hoop residual stress of a FGH96 superalloy IFW specimen after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) was also measured with the CM after a single cut. The measured results show that the peak hoop residual stress is not symmetrical about the weld centreline. Axial residual stress on the outer surface at the weld centreline is compressive stress, while tensile stress appears on the inner surface, and it varies linearly along the thickness. The peak values of hoop tensile and compressive stresses decrease dramatically after PWHT.     

Finite Element Analysis of High Temperature Piping Creep for Considering the Effect of Inner Pressure and Welding Residual Stress

利用大型有限元分析软件Abaqus的多次顺次耦合功能,先对P91钢高温主蒸汽管道焊接接头焊态和焊后热处理状态进行残余应力分析, 然后采用Norton蠕变本构关系,根据P91耐热钢在625℃下焊缝、热影响区和母材的不同蠕变参数,对内压以及内压与热处理后残余应力共同作用下的接头蠕变进行有限元分析,分别得到了焊接残余应力和焊后热处理残余应力的分布规律,同时预测了在高温环境下服役105h后蠕变应变分布. 结果表明,由于高温管道的壁厚以及约束等影响, 焊后产生了较大的焊接残余应力,通过焊后热处理可以有效地降低焊接残余应力.但由于热处理残余应力的存在, 仍对高温管道焊接接头的蠕变有较大影响,并且在焊缝与热影响区的交界处存在着较大的蠕变应变.     

异种钢管子对接焊热处理前后残余应力的数值模拟

采用热-粘弹塑性有限元模型,在考虑蠕变效应的基础上,对同种及异种钢管子环焊缝焊接及焊后热处理过程进行了数值模拟.计算结果表明,经过热处理过程后,管子焊接接头的残余应力有显著的降低,约为初始状态的1/3.在热处理后期,两种接头的残余应力均出现了一定程度的回升现象.基于在相同的计算条件下,异种钢焊接接头残余应力要高于同种钢.同时,比较了过渡层对接头残余应力的影响,发现过渡层宽度对于降低异种钢焊接接头残余应力水平有重要影响.     

双相不锈钢管道全位置焊接残余应力三维有限元数值模拟

以热弹塑理论为基础，利用ANSYS非线性分析有限元程序，对双相不锈钢管道接头环焊缝残余应力进行三维数值模拟。建立了管道全位置焊接瞬态温度场和应力场三维移动热源模型，获得了环焊缝焊接接头轴向和环向残余应力的分布规律：在管道接头内表面的焊缝及近缝区的轴向和环向残余应力均为拉应力，随着离开焊缝距离的增加，由拉应力逐渐过渡为压应力。在管道接头外表面焊缝中心处的轴向残余应力为压应力，而环向残余应力为拉应力。从环向位置上的应力变化规律可以看出正半周和负半周的应力分布具有明显的对称性。研究结果为优化生产工艺，控制残余应力提供了理论依据。     

Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of 12Cr1MoVG Tube Welded Joints With/Without Post-weld Heat Treatment

Small-caliber, thick-wall 12Cr1MoVG seamless steel tube welded joints were fabricated in this study by gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding techniques, then the microstructures, mechanical properties, and residual stress distributions of the joints with or without post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) were compared. The welded joints are mainly composed of bcc ferrite (F), Fe₃C, and M₇C₃ carbides. PWHT did not cause an apparent microstructure evolution in the joints, but promoted granular pearlite decomposition and growth of F grains and carbides, therefore decreasing the yield, tensile strength, and hardness while increasing the impact toughness and elongation of the welded joints. PWHT also released the circumferential residual stress and altered the stress state in the joint from tensile to compressive. Although the mechanical properties and bending performance of the small-caliber, thick-wall 12Cr1MoVG seamless welded joints without PWHT are acceptable, our results show that the joints with PWHT are more reliable.     

Residual welding stresses in laser beam and tungsten inert gas weldments of titanium alloy

Abstract

The residual welding stresses in laser beam (LB) and tungsten inert gas (TIG) weldments of a titanium alloy in thin plate form were investigated experimentally in the present work. A hole drilling technique was used to measure the residual stresses in the weldments. The effects of the welding method and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on the residual stresses were analysed. The results show that (i) the residual stress distribution in the LB welded joints is similar to that obtained for traditional fusion welding processes, although the distribution zone is much narrower in LB welding, (ii) the residual stress in the heat affected zone for LB welding is about 100 MPa lower than that for TIG welding, and (iii) PWHT in vacuum greatly relieves the welding residual stress.     

管道对接间断焊与连续焊的有限元分析

应用大型有限元分析软件ABAQUS,对工业管道间断焊与连续焊的温度场和残余应力场进行数值模拟.考虑材料的物理性能随温度的变化以及外界环境对焊接构件温度场的影响,采用热振幅曲线加载方法模拟焊接热源的移动,运用单元生死技术实现管道多道焊的模拟.将两种焊接工艺得到的温度场和残余应力场进行比较.结果表明,间断焊可以降低焊接时的温度,而采用连续焊可以获得较小的轴向残余应力,间断焊和连续焊的环向应力对管道的影响不大.另外对起焊点处的温度场和残余应力场也做了详细的分析,起焊点内壁处的轴向残余应力较大.     

复合容器的焊接

针对容器内表面全部实施合金625的堆焊覆层技术条件要求,对于合金625的堆焊覆层,从堆焊覆层工作表面以下2 mm处的铁元素含量应不超过5%,接管法兰与筒体和管帽的部件热处理应在堆焊覆层后和不锈钢内件焊接前进行,筒体与管帽的闭合焊缝焊接和热处理存在问题,采用坡口预边堆焊隔离层,部件焊后热处理后冷态焊接闭合焊缝,图纸要求内壁堆焊层厚度和坡口隔离层厚度不小于3 mm,经焊接实验证明其复合容器堆焊覆层最小厚度应为5 mm,用焊接工艺评定验证了该结构的各项性能指标均满足标准和规范要求。     

焊后热处理对输送H_2S介质压力管道维修焊接接头组织性能的影响

采用手工钨极氩弧焊(TIG焊)打底,焊条电弧焊(SMAW)填充、盖面的焊接工艺对输送H_2S介质压力管道(20钢)进行维修焊接,并对其焊接接头进行720～750℃下保温1h的焊后热处理.对热处理前、后焊接接头组织和性能进行分析研究,结果表明:720～750℃×1h热处理使焊缝区与热影响区成针状分布的魏氏组织铁索体晶粒得到细化,并使其呈退化形态;焊缝区、热影响区与母材的显微硬度整体呈下降趋势;焊接接头抗拉强度大幅度提高,断裂均处在远离焊缝的母材上.焊后热处理有效地降低了焊接接头的残余应力,改变了残余应力的分布特征,使其分布趋于"均匀",拉应力大幅度降低.     

Selection of filler wire for and effect of auto tempering on the mechanical properties of dissimilar metal joint between 403 and 304L(N) stainless steels

Weldability of the dissimilar weld joint between austenitic 304L(N) stainless steel (SS) and martensitic 403 SS made by gas tungsten arc welding process using ERNiCr-3 filler metal has been studied. For this study, 12 mm thick plates of these two materials were joined using a K-type weld groove joint, with the straight edge on the 403 SS side buttered using ERNiCr-3 filler wire. Two types of weld joints were prepared—one using as-buttered 403 SS and the other one with buttered and post-weld heat-treated 403 SS plate. The joint made with the as-buttered 403 SS plate exhibits good bend ductility and toughness on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the 403 SS side and it is comparable with that of the buttered and post-weld heat-treated 403SS weld joint properties. Thus, buttering of the 403 SS plate enabled dissimilar welding with the 304L(N) SS plate without any post-weld heat treatment because of auto tempering of the martensite present in the 403 SS HAZ formed due to weld thermal cycle.     

Effects of heat treatment and chromium content on the environmentally assisted cracking behavior of the dissimilar metal welds in simulated BWR coolant environments

The environmentally assisted cracking behavior of dissimilar metal (DM) welds, including Alloy 52 – A508 and Alloy 82 – A508, under simulated BWR coolant conditions was studied. Effects of postweld heat treatment (PWHT) on the SCC and corrosion fatigue crack growth rates of DM welds were evaluated. PWHT brought about a change of the carbide precipitate distribution and strain localization, thus leading to a redistribution of the weld residual stress. It is concluded that Cr content in the weld may not be the sole factor governing the SCC resistance; the localized strain concentration could also play an important role.     

焊接残余应力对氢扩散影响的有限元模拟

利用ABAQUS有限元软件开发的氢扩散耦合计算程序，对焊态和焊后热处理状态下残余应力对氢扩散的影响进行了数值模拟，并与无应力状态下的氢扩散进行了比较．结果表明，存在焊接残余应力梯度时，氢向高应力区富集，在热影响区附近，有一个氢浓度低谷，这是氢向高应力区长程扩散所致．经过焊后热处理，应力松弛效果明显，残余应力大幅下降，对氢扩散的影响也大大降低，氢的最高浓度降低了近40％．因此，焊后热处理可以有效降低材料在氢环境下开裂的敏感性．     

铍环激光束钎焊过程的数值模拟

采用MARC软件对铍环激光束钎焊过程的温度场和应力场进行有限元分析，温度场分析得到与铍环实际激光束钎焊基本一致的焊缝形状，应力场分析表明，焊接后轴向应力和环向应力在焊缝中心的钎料上为压应力，在铍玻外表面热影响区的内表面均为拉应力，径向应力为压应力，焊接残余应力主要分布在离焊缝2mm的范围内，焊接后铍环内外表面发生径向收缩，将有限元分析得以的铍坏外形面的轴向残余应力结果与实测结果进行了比较，二者所反映的应力变化趋势基本一致。