不同温度下MDYB-3有机玻璃的棘轮效应

对在不同温度和应力状态下, MDYB-3有机玻璃的棘轮效应进行了实验和分析.运用棘轮应变与应力-应变滞回环能量的对应关系和高聚物塑性变形的应力促进热激活理论,建立了一种新的适用于高聚物材料的稳态棘轮应变增长率的计算模型,揭示了温度、载荷频率、平均应力和应力幅值对棘轮应变演化的影响.将该模型应用于不同温度下MDYB-3有机玻璃疲劳过程中的棘轮变形增长行为的描述,理论预测结果与试验结果吻合良好.     

An investigation of the fatigue of CK45 steel in the as‐received state and after pre‐fatigue deformation

Fatigue failure, ratcheting behaviour and influence of pre‐fatigue on fatigue behaviour were investigated under uniaxial cyclic loading for CK45 steel at room temperature. The fatigue life was recorded for various stress ratios, and then, three mean stress models were considered. The Walker model showed an acceptable accuracy in comparison with Smith–Watson–Topper and Park et al. models. The ratcheting strains were measured for various loading conditions in order to evaluate the impact of mean stress, stress amplitude and stress ratio on ratcheting behaviour. The experimental results showed that the ratcheting strain increased with increasing mean stress, stress amplitude and stress ratio. In addition, the results of the post‐ratcheting‐fatigue tests showed that although the fatigue life decreased with increasing pre‐ratcheting strain (the ratcheting strain that is accumulated in pre‐fatigue), the loading condition that pre‐fatigue experiments were conducted has a significant effect on subsequent fatigue behaviour.     

Applying viscoplastic constitutive models to predict ratcheting behavior of sintered nanosilver lap-shear joint

A series of displacement-controlled tests were conducted for sintered nanosilver lap-shear joints at different loading rates and temperatures. The relationship between force and displacement was studied. It was found that higher loading rate or lower temperature caused higher stress–strain response of the sintered nanosilver joint. Force-controlled cyclic tests were also performed at different mean forces, force amplitudes, dwell time at peak force, and temperatures. The mean force, the force amplitude, and the temperature played key roles in the shear ratcheting strain accumulation. The ratcheting strain rate could be enhanced with increasing the dwell time at peak force as well. A viscoplastic constitutive model based on Ohno–Wang and Armstrong–Fedrick (OW–AF) non-linear kinematic hardening rule, and Anand model were separately embedded in ABAQUS to simulate the shear and the ratcheting behavior of the sintered nanosilver joint. It was concluded that OW–AF model could predict the ratcheting behavior of the sintered nanosilver joint better than Anand model, especially at high temperatures.     

Concurrent ratcheting and stress relaxation at the notch root of steel samples undergoing asymmetric tensile loading cycles

The current study intends to develop a framework model to assess ratcheting and stress relaxation at the notch root of 1045 steel samples over asymmetric loading cycles. The framework involves the Ahmadzadeh‐Varvani (A‐V) kinematic hardening rule to control ratcheting progress and Neuber rule to accommodate for local stress and strain components at the vicinity of notch root. Plastic strain at notch root was first coupled with its counterpart in the A‐V model to establish a relation between local stress and backstress components. Calculated local stress and strain values at turning points enabled the A‐V model to assess ratcheting strain over each loading cycle. The stepwise drop in stresses at peak‐valley tips of hysteresis loops at the notch root was associated to coupled framework of the A‐V model and Neuber rule through constancy in local strain while ratcheting progressed over each cycle. This relaxed out the local stresses at tips of hysteresis loops to position on Neuber hyperbolic curve. Predicted ratcheting values at notch root of various diameters closely agreed with those of measured in steel samples over stress cycles.     

Effect of axial ratcheting deformation on torsional low cycle fatigue life of lead-free solder Sn–3.5Ag

Multiaxial fatigue tests were conducted on Sn–3.5Ag solder specimens under axial/torsional loading at room temperature. It was found that the ratcheting strain increased while the fatigue life decreased with the increase of axial stress and shear strain amplitude. A power relationship of ratcheting strain rate versus fatigue life was observed. Equivalent strain approach and critical plane approaches were evaluated with fatigue life data obtained in the tests. Since those approaches excluded the consideration of the ratcheting strain and mean stress, the methods for fatigue life prediction were improper for multiaxial fatigue with ratcheting strain. Coffin model, considered the effect of ratcheting on fatigue life depending on the ratio of ratcheting strain to material ductility, brought the fatigue life predictions on non-conservative side if the ratcheting deformation was large. For this reason, a model with the maximum shear strain range and axial ratcheting strain rate was proposed as a new damage parameter. The new model could not only describe the fatigue life in torsion test, but also predicted torsional fatigue life of the lead-free solder with axial ratcheting.     

Ratcheting assessment of materials based on the modified Armstrong–Frederick hardening rule at various uniaxial stress levels

The present study evaluates ratcheting response of materials by means of the Armstrong–Frederick (A–F) hardening rule, the modified A–F rule (Bower's model), and further modifications of the hardening rule based on new introduced coefficients. The implemented modifications on the A–F‐based hardening rule aims to address stages of ratcheting over stress cycles. The modified hardening rule predicts the ratcheting strain rate decay over stage I and the constant rate of strain accumulation during stage II. The modified hardening rule consisted of the coefficients of the hardening rule controlling stress–strain hysteresis loops generated over stress cycles during ratcheting process (Bower's modification on A–F rule) plus the coefficients controlling rates over stages of materials ratcheting deformation. Stress–strain‐dependent coefficients in the modified rule are responsible to compromise overprediction of ratcheting of A–F during stage I and the premature plastic shakedown beyond stage I induced by Bower's model. Ratcheting strain rate coefficients improved the hardening rule capability to calibrate and control the rate of ratcheting in stages I and II and enabled the modified hardening rule to predict ratcheting strain over a prolonged domain of stress cycles. The modified hardening rule was employed to assess ratcheting response of 304, 42CrMo, 316L steel and copper samples under uniaxial loading conditions. The predicted ratcheting values based on the modified hardening rule and the experimental ratcheting strains were found in good agreements.     

Effect of stress parameters on ratcheting deformation stages of polycrystalline OFHC copper

Engineering stress‐controlled ratcheting tests under different sets of stress amplitudes and mean stresses show that ratcheting deformation in polycrystalline OFHC copper occurs in three different stages. A plateau region with almost no accumulation of inelastic strain follows general ratcheting deformation during initial loading cycles. With breakdown of the plateau region inelastic ratcheting deformation occurs at an increasingly rapid rate. The effect of the stress amplitude on the ratcheting process is found to be more than mean stress effect. Reconstruction of the ratcheting curves clearly separates the conditions for stress‐controlled low cycle fatigue with zero mean stress and ratcheting with tensile mean stress.     

Ratcheting progress at notch root of 1045 steel samples over asymmetric loading cycles: Experiments and analyses

The present study examines ratcheting response of steel samples with various notch diameters through conducting several cyclic tests. Ratcheting strain values were measured through strain gauges mounted at different distances from the notch root. Local ratcheting at the notch region was highly influenced by notch diameter, notch shape, distance from the notch root, and magnitude of the nominal mean/amplitude of loading cycles. Nominal force‐controlled cycles were kept below the yield point and the Neuber's rule accommodated for the maximum/minimum local stress components along those local strains measured through the strain gauges at the notch region. Plastic strains at the vicinity of notch root over loading cycles were further accumulated by means of the Chaboche hardening model. The local ratcheting strain while progressed at the notch root plastic zone over loading cycles resulted in mean stress relaxation controlled by the model.     

AZ91D室温环境棘轮及其低周疲劳行为

通过AZ91D室温环境应力控制下的低周疲劳试验,对铸造镁合金棘轮及其低周疲劳行为进行了研究,讨论了室温环境下材料的应力循环特性、棘轮行为、塑性应变范围、全应变范围等疲劳参量随载荷水平和加载历史的变化规律,同时基于平均应力修正对材料的应力-寿命曲线进行了讨论。研究结果表明:AZ91D在室温环境下的应力循环呈循环硬化,材料的棘轮行为和塑性应变范围、全应变范围等疲劳参量依赖于载荷水平和加载历史,另外考虑平均应力修正后的应力-寿命曲线预测效果有明显改观。     

Ratcheting assessment of steel alloys under step-loading conditions

The present study examines the capability of a recently modified hardening rule to characterize ratcheting response of materials subjected to multi-step uniaxial stress cycles. The modified hardening rule was developed based on Armstrong–Frederick (A–F) hardening rule through implementing new ratcheting rate dependent coefficients γ₂ and δ. These coefficients were estimated by means of calibrated curves for any given stress levels defined from the uniaxial single-step ratcheting response at various cyclic stress levels. At a constant mean stress, ratcheting strain progressively increased as stress amplitude over steps of loading history increased. Similar response was also evident for step-loading with constant stress amplitude while the values of mean stress increased. For high–low histories, the trend of predicted ratcheting strain from higher to lower magnitudes found agreeable with that of experimental data. The discrepancy of the predicted and experimentally ratcheting strain values in the high–low step loading however was due to constancy in the shape and size of translating yield surface in the modified kinematic hardening rule. The modified hardening rule was employed to assess ratcheting response of SS316L, SA333, SS316L(N) and 1070 steel alloys under various step-loading conditions. Predicted ratcheting data at various stress level were found in good agreements as compared with the experimental ratcheting strains.     

Strain ratcheting and stress relaxation around interference‐fitted single‐holed plates under cyclic loading: experimental and numerical investigations

Longitudinal strain ratcheting and stress relaxation in interference‐fitted single‐holed plates were investigated both experimentally and numerically. In the experimental part single‐holed plates made from Al‐alloy 7075‐T6 were force‐fitted with oversized pins to create 1% and 2% nominal interference fit sizes. Then these plates (specimens) were instrumented with dynamic strain gauges in longitudinal direction around the hole to measure the strain during interference fit and strain ratcheting during subsequent cyclic loading. In the numerical part, 2D finite element code has been written to simulate the interference fit process and subsequent cyclic loading to obtain strains and stresses around the force fitted hole. To predict the strain ratcheting, Ohno–Wang kinematic hardening model was applied for simulation of stress/strain path. The strain ratcheting predicted from the finite element code and experimental test results were compared. The results showed that there is a good agreement between the measured and numerically evaluated strains, and the strain ratcheting is bigger for higher cyclic load level, but it is smaller for larger interference size.     

Fatigue of beta titanium alloy at 20, 482 and 648 °C

Fatigue life of fibrous metal matrix composites is limited by the distribution of fibre strengths, the fibre‐matrix interfacial strength, and the fatigue resistance of the matrix. The aim of this work is to provide fatigue results for a beta titanium alloy over a range of temperatures and stresses that can be used as input for predicting fatigue life of a titanium matrix composite. Stress controlled tests having fatigue ratios between ?1 and ?0.2 were conducted on a limited number of samples machined from unreinforced laminated Ti‐15Mo‐3Al‐2.7Nb‐0.2Si (TIMETAL^®21S) sheets to represent as closely as possible the in situ matrix material. Stress control was used to enable quantification of strain ratcheting for tensile mean stresses and a fast loading rate was used to minimize time‐dependent (creep) deformation. Stress amplitude‐life data at 20, 482 and 648 °C for fully reversed loading are well fit by a power law. Normalizing the stress amplitude with respect to the power law coefficient appears to account for the temperature dependence of the S–N curves. As the tests had large strains and lives were in the low‐cycle fatigue range, strain range at the half‐life was also correlated to life. For tensile mean stress cycling at 482 and 648 °C, the rate of strain ratcheting per cycle increased to failure; shakedown was not observed.     

Damage evolution with growing cyclic creep and life prediction of MDYB‐3 PMMA

The influence of cyclic creep accumulation rate on the damage evolution of MDYB‐3 polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was experimentally investigated. Fatigue tests were carried out at four stress levels by stress control mode. The steady cyclic creep accumulation stage was observed occupying a substantial proportion of all specimens fatigue processes. Cyclic creep strain growth speed and relaxed modulus degradation rate were deduced as two important indicators for describing the damage evolution characteristics. Linear evolution relations of cyclic creep strain and modulus degradation with cycle times were retrieved from different terms of hysteresis loops. A preliminary model was proposed to be able to estimate the damage extent at different cyclic stress levels. The life predictions by the proposed model were compared with the experiment results and the classical power S–N model, which were demonstrated as a good estimation for the fatigue life. It is feasible to make durability evaluations by the characteristics of steady cyclic creep for multiaxis directed PMMA material.     

Ratcheting‐fatigue behaviour of bainite 2.25Cr1MoV steel with tensile and compressed hold loading at 455°C

The ratcheting behaviour of a bainite 2.25Cr1MoV steel was studied with various hold periods at 455°C. Particular attention was paid to the effect of stress hold on whole‐life ratcheting deformation, fatigue life, and failure mechanism. Results indicate that longer peak hold periods stimulate a faster accumulation of ratcheting strain by contribution of creep strain, while double hold at peak and valley stress has an even stronger influence. Creep strains produced in peak and valley hold periods are noticeable and result in higher cyclic strain amplitudes. Dimples and acquired defects are found in failed specimen by microstructure observation, and their number and size increase under creep‐fatigue loading. Enlarged cyclic strain amplitude and material deterioration caused by creep lead to fatigue life reduction under creep‐fatigue loading. A life prediction model suitable for asymmetric cycling is proposed based on the linear damage summation rule.     

Cyclic viscoelastoplasticity of polypropylene/nanoclay composites

Observations are reported on isotactic polypropylene/organically modified nanoclay hybrids with concentrations of filler ranging from 0 to 5 wt.% in cyclic tensile tests with a stress?Ccontrolled program (oscillations between various maximum stresses and the zero minimum stress). A pronounced effect of nanofiller is demonstrated: reinforcement with 2?wt.% of clay results in strong reduction of maximum and minimum strains per cycle and growth of number of cycles to failure compared with neat polypropylene. To rationalize these findings, a constitutive model is developed in cyclic viscoelasticity and viscoplasticity of polymer nanocomposites. Adjustable parameters in the stress?Cstrain relations are found by fitting experimental data. The model correctly describes the growth of the ratcheting strain and shows that fatigue failure is driven by a pronounced increase in plastic strain in the crystalline phase. To assess the influence of loading conditions on the changes in the material parameters, experimental data on polypropylene are studied in cyclic tests with a strain?Ccontrolled program (oscillations between fixed maximum and minimum strains) and a mixed program (oscillations between various maximum strains and the zero minimum stress). Numerical simulation confirms the ability of the model to predict the evolution of stress?Cstrain diagrams with the number of cycles.     

碳纤维增强PEEK树脂基复合材料的单轴时相关循环特性实验研究

通过对碳纤维/PEEK复合材料(纤维体积分数30%)的单调拉伸、 应力控制循环、 应变控制循环实验, 对该材料的应力、 应变循环特性以及棘轮行为的率相关、 时相关特性进行了系统的研究。研究表明: 与PEEK树脂基体材料相比, 加入碳纤维使材料的抗蠕变性能有所提高。在应变控制循环实验中, 响应应力幅值与应变加载速率和应变加载幅值密切相关; 在应力松弛效应的影响下, 响应应力幅值随着应变峰值保持时间的增加而减小。室温下, 碳纤维/PEEK复合材料在非对称应力循环中产生明显的棘轮应变, 并且对加载应力幅值和平均应力具有明显的依赖性, 此外, 当在较低的加载速率和具有一定峰值保持时间情况下, 棘轮应变显著增强。      

Development of new cyclic plasticity model for 304LN stainless steel through simulation and experimental investigation

Cyclic plastic deformation characteristics of 304LN stainless steel material have been studied with two proposed cyclic plasticity models. Model MM-I has been proposed to improve the simulation of ratcheting phenomenon and model MM-II has the capability to simulate both cyclic hardening and softening characteristics of the material at various strain ranges. In the present paper, strain controlled simulations are performed with constant, increasing and decreasing strain amplitudes to verify the influences of loading schemes on cyclic plasticity behaviors through simulations and experiments. It is observed that the material 304LN exhibits non Masing characteristics under cyclic plastic deformation. The measured deviation from Masing is well established from the simulation as well as from experiment. Simulation result shows that the assumption of only isotropic hardening is unable to explain the hardening or softening characteristics of the material in low cycle fatigue test. The introduction of memory stress based cyclic hardening coefficient and an exponentially varying ratcheting parameter in the recall term of kinematic hardening rule, have resulted in exceptional improvement in the ratcheting simulation with the proposed model, MM-II. Plastic energy, shape and size of the hysteresis loops are additionally used to verify the nature of cyclic plasticity deformations. Ratcheting test and simulation have been performed to estimate the accumulated plastic strain with different mean and amplitude stresses. In the proposed model MM-I, a new proposition is incorporated for yield stress variation based on the memory stress of loading history along with the evolution of ratcheting parameter with an exponential function of plastic strain. These formulations lead to better realization of ratcheting rate in the transient cycles for all loading schemes. Effect of mean stress on the plastic energy is examined by the simulation model, MM-I. Finally, the micro structural investigation from transmission electronic microscopy is used to correlate the macroscopic and microscopic non Masing behavior of the material.     

Ratcheting and fatigue properties of the high-nitrogen steel X13CrMnMoN18-14-3 under cyclic loading

High-nitrogen steel X13CrMnMoN18-14-3 has been used in manufacturing expanding metallic stents with 0.1 mm diameter, and such medical implant is subjected to complicated and asymmetrical cyclic loading during service. But there is no test data published for the thin wire of the material under cyclic loading. In this study, a series of tests were conducted on X13CrMnMoN18-14-3 stainless steel under uniaxial cyclic loading with mean tensile stress. The yield stress and ultimate strength were higher than that of large size specimen with diameters of 5 mm and 7 mm. The effects of stress amplitude, mean stress, loading history and stress rate on the ratcheting behavior of high-nitrogen steel were analyzed, respectively. It can be concluded that the ratcheting strain amplitude and ratcheting strain rate of X13CrMnMoN18-14-3 steel increases with increasing stress amplitude or mean stress correspondingly. At the meantime, experimental results reveal that the material exhibits a strong memory of the previous loading history, the stress cycling with higher stress amplitude or mean stress greatly restrains the ratcheting of subsequent stress cycling with lower ones. The ratcheting strain rate was very sensitive to the applied cyclic stress rate, and the accumulation of ratcheting strain under stress rate of 21.2 MPa/s is much faster than that under stress rate of 106 MPa/s. In addition, comparison of the fatigue life between bulk specimen and thin wire indicates that the size effect has significant influence on fatigue properties of the material. In the case of the test conducted under stress amplitude of 400 MPa, the fatigue life of small specimen is approximately ten times longer than that of bulk specimen under the same loading conditions.     

聚碳酸酯的单轴棘轮行为研究

在常温常湿下,对聚碳酸酯(PC)材料进行了一系列单轴应变循环和非对称应力循环实验。讨论了PC材料在不同加载水平、加载历史、应力率和峰值保持时间下的循环变形特征。结果表明:PC材料在应变循环过程中体现出了一定程度的循环软化特性,其响应应力幅值在应变循环中随着循环周次的增加而下降,但不是很明显;PC材料在非对称应力循环加载过程中产生明显的棘轮行为,棘轮应变随着平均应力和应力幅值的增加而增加,并且平均应力的影响大于应力幅值的影响;加载历史对于棘轮变形行为的影响较为明显,但对应变循环特性影响不大;PC材料的棘轮变形随着应力率的减小和峰值保持时间的增加而增加,体现明显的时相关性。