Brazability of dissimilar metals tungsten inert gas butt welding–brazing between aluminum alloy and stainless steel with Al–Cu filler metal

Dissimilar metals tungsten inert gas butt welding–brazing between 5A06 aluminum alloy and SUS321 stainless steel was carried out using Al–Cu6 filler metal and non-corrosive flux. A thin intermetallic compound layer has formed in welded seam/steel interface and the average thickness of the whole layer is 3–5 μm, which is less than the limited value of 10 μm. The intermetallic compound layer consists of Fe₄Al₁₃ phase and at the bottom Sn deposits in the molten flux layer and diffuses into steel matrix to form the grain boundary filter layer, which is the weak zone of the butt joint. The average microhardness of the layer is 644.7 HV, compared with 104.5 HV in welded seam and 200 HV in steel matrix. The tensile strength of butt joint reaches 172.5 MPa and the crack initiates from the IMC layer at the bottom of the joint and derives into welded seam at the upper part of the joint. The present joint in this study has higher level than those with coated layer.     

Investigation of laser welding on butt joints of Al/steel dissimilar materials

Dissimilar metals of AA6013 aluminum alloy and Q235 low-carbon steel of 2.5 mm thickness were butt joined using a 10 kW fiber laser welding system with ER4043 filler metal. The study indicates that it is feasible to join aluminum alloy to steel by butt joints when zinc layer was hot-dip galvanized at the steel’s groove face in advance, and better weld appearance can be obtained at appropriate welding parameters. The joints had dual characteristics of a welding joint on the aluminum side and a brazing joint on the steel side. The smooth Fe₂Al₅ layer adjacent to the steel matrix and the serrated-shape FeAl₃ layer close to the weld metal were formed at the brazing interface. The overall thickness of Fe–Al intermetallic compounds layers produced in this experiment were varied from 1.8 μm to 6.2 μm at various welding parameters with laser power of 2.85–3.05 kW and wire feed speed of 5–7 m/min. The Al/steel butt joints were failed at the brazing interface during the tensile test and reached the maximum tensile strength of 120 MPa.     

Flash butt resistance welding for duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels were welded using flash butt resistance welding with temperature controlling system. Flash butt resistance welding is consisting of two stage processes of flash action and contact resistance. First stage is flashing action. The specimen produced flashing or arcing across the interface of the two butting ends of the specimens. Fine particles of metals near the surface were burned out towards the opposing surface of the specimen irregularity and then the melted particles were deposited on the surface. The second stage is resistance welding. The solid state bonding was performed in the region around the deposited particles. The cross-sectional microstructure of the weld bond region was observed using microscopy. The microstructure showed two types of a deposited fine particles region and a solid state bonding region. The grain growth was hardly observed in the weld region and the heat-affected zone. The tensile strength and the impact energy increased with increasing heating time up to 1373 K because of increasing fine grained deposited metal.     

Mechanical properties of friction stir butt welds of high nitrogen-containing austenitic stainless steel

In this study, the friction stir butt welding of 2-mm-thick high nitrogen-containing stainless steel (HNS; Ni-free austenitic stainless steel containing 1 mass% nitrogen) plates was performed using a load-controlled friction stir welding (FSW) machine with a Si₃N₄-based tool at various welding speeds, i.e., 50 mm/min, 100 mm/min, 200 mm/min and 300 mm/min, and a constant tool rotating speed of 400 rpm. To determine the optimum welding conditions to create reliable HNS FSW joints, the effect of the heat input on the mechanical properties of the HNS FSW joints was studied. The mechanical properties were evaluated by the Vickers hardness test and the tensile strength test. Full-penetrated and defect-free butt welded joints were successfully produced, under all the applied welding conditions. The stir zones consisted of very fine grained structures and showed an increase in the Vickers hardness. These joints also showed a higher tensile strength and yield strength than the base metal. In particular, the FSW welds obtained at a welding speed of 100 mm/min, which showed the best mechanical properties, had a relatively higher Vickers hardness, which indicates a good relationship between the welding parameter (heat input) and the hardness profile due to the microstructure refinements. It was estimated that these welding conditions were optimal, and under these conditions both grain growth and α-phase formation were prevented.     

Microstructure characterization and properties of carbon steel to stainless steel dissimilar metal joint made by friction welding

Dissimilar metals of 1045 carbon steel and 304 stainless steel are joined successfully by friction welding. The microstructure variation and mechanical properties are studied in detail. The weld interface can be clearly identified in central zone, while the two metals interlock with each other by the mechanical mixing in peripheral zone. On carbon steel side, a thin proeutectoid ferrite layer forms along weld interface. On stainless steel side, austenite grains are refined to submicron scale. The δ-ferrite existing in stainless steel decreases from base metal to weld interface and disappears near the weld interface. Severe plastic deformation plays a predominant role in rapid dissolution of δ-ferrite compared with the high temperature. Carbide layer consisting of CrC and Cr₂₃C₆ forms at weld interface because of element diffusion. Metastable phase CrC is retained at room temperature due to the highly non-equilibrium process and high cooling rate in friction welding. The fracture appearance shows dimple fracture mode in central zone and quasi-cleavage fracture mode in peripheral zone. Further analysis indicates that welding parameters govern tensile properties of the joint through influencing the thickness of carbide layer at weld interface and heterogeneous microstructure in thermo-mechanically affected zone on carbon steel side.     

Evaluation of fatigue fracture mechanism in a flash butt welding joint of a U75V type steel for railroad applications

Nowadays, U75V steel is widely used in high speed railway construction, and commonly jointed by means of flash butt welding procedure. Considering the fact that fatigue failure is the main failure mode of railways, to ensure an adequate service life of railways, especially railways in coastal areas, this work mainly investigated the fatigue fracture mechanism of flash butt welding joints of U75V rail steel. First, the flash butt welding joints were prepared under two sets of process parameters and certain welding joints were corroded beforehand. Then, the microstructure, hardness, S–N curve and fatigue fracture of welding joints were analyzed in detail. Finally, the fracture mechanism was comprehensively discussed by considering the effect of welding parameters. It was concluded that the fatigue performance of flash welding joint is mainly determined by the upset pressure. Higher upset pressure is conducive to improve the fatigue strength. The fatigue crack source of fractured specimens under the condition of corrosion environment is at interface area and at the subsurface of sample. Meanwhile, the corrosion fatigue life obviously reduces.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of magnesium alloy and stainless steel weld-joint made by friction stir lap welding

Friction stir lap welding was conducted on soft/hard metals. A welding tool was designed with a cutting pin of rotary burr made of tungsten carbide, which makes the stirring pin possible to penetrate and cut the surface layer of the hard metal. Magnesium alloy AZ31 and stainless steel SUS302 were chosen as soft/hard base metals. The structures of the joining interface were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The joining strength was evaluated by tensile shear test. The results showed that flower-like interfacial morphologies were presented with steel flashes and scraps, which formed bonding mechanisms of nail effect by long steel flashes, zipper effect by saw-tooth structure and metallurgical bonding. The shear strength of the lap joint falls around the shear strength of butt joint of friction stir welded magnesium alloy.     

Investigations on the mechanical properties and microstructure of dissimilar cp-titanium and AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel continuous friction welds

Friction welding process is a solid state joining process that produces a weld under the compressive force contact of one rotating and one stationary work piece. In this study, the friction welding of dissimilar joints of AISI 316L stainless steel and cp-titanium is considered. The optical, scanning electron microscopy studies of the weld were carried out. Moreover, the X-ray diffraction analysis was performed. The integrity of welds was achieved by the micro hardness and tensile tests. The fracture surface was examined by the scanning electron microscopy. The study showed that the magnitude of tensile strength of the dissimilar welded specimen was below that of the titanium base material if preheating was not applied at the interface. The high weld tensile strength was achieved by preheating the 316L stainless steel material to 700 °C, smoothing and cleaning of the contact surfaces. Results illustrated that in dissimilar joints, different phases and intermetallic compounds such as FeTi, Fe₂Ti, Fe₂Ti₄O, Cr₂Ti and sigma titanium phase were produced at the interface. The presence of brittle intermetallic compounds at the interface resulted in degradation of mechanical strength which in turn led to premature failure of joint interface in the service condition. Preheating caused to produce oxide layer at the interface which was harmful for bonding. The oxide layer could be eliminated by applying pressure and smoothing the surface. Results of hardness tests illustrated that the high hardness was occurred in the titanium side adjacent to the joint interface. Moreover, the optimum operational parameters were obtained in order to achieve the weld tensile strength greater than the weak titanium material.     

Comparative study on microstructure and mechanical properties of laser welded–brazed Mg/mild steel and Mg/stainless steel joints

A laser welding–brazing (LWB) technology using Mg based filler has been developed for joining Mg alloy to mild steel and Mg alloy to stainless steel in a lap configuration. Microstructure and mechanical properties of laser welded–brazed lap joints in both cases were comparatively studied. The results indicated that no distinct reaction layer was observed at the interface of Mg/mild steel and subsequently the interface was confirmed as mechanical bonding, whereas an ultra thin reaction layer with a continuous and uniform morphology was evidenced at the Mg/stainless steel interface, which was indicative of metallurgical bonding. The newly formed interfacial layer was indexed as FeAl phase by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The average tensile–shear strength of Mg/mild steel joint was only 142 N/mm with typical interfacial failure, while that of Mg/stainless steel joint could reach 270 N/mm, representing 82.4% joint efficiency relative to the Mg alloy base metal. The fracture location of Mg/stainless steel joint was at Mg fusion welding side, suggesting the interface was not weak point due to the formation of ultra thin interfacial layer. The role of alloying elements in base metal and bonding mechanism of the interfacial layer were discussed, respectively.     

Hierarchical microstructure of explosive joints: Example of titanium to steel cladding

The microstructure of explosive cladding joints formed among parallel Ti and steel plates was examined by electron microscopy. The bonding interface and the bulk materials around it form pronounced hierarchical microstructures. This hierarchy is characterized by the following features: at the mesoscopic scale of the hierarchy a wavy course of the interface characterizes the interface zone. This microstructure level is formed by heavy plastic shear waves (wavelength ≈ 0.5 mm) which expand within the two metal plates during the explosion parallel to the bonding interface. At the micro-scale range, intermetallic inclusions (size ≈ 100-200 μm) are formed just behind the wave crests on the steel side as a result of partial melting. Electron diffraction revealed FeTi and metastable Fe_9.64Ti_0.36. Most of the observed phases do not appear in the equilibrium Fe-Ti phase diagram. These intermetallic inclusions are often accompanied by micro-cracks of similar dimension. At the smallest hierarchy level we observe a reaction layer of about 100-300 nm thickness consisting of nano-sized grains formed along the entire bonding interface. Within that complex hierarchical micro- and nanostructure, the mesoscopic regime, more precisely the type and brittleness of the intermetallic zones, seems to play the dominant role for the mechanical behavior of the entire compound.     

Thickness limit of BaTiO3 thin film capacitors grown on SUS substrates using aerosol deposition method

We fabricated BaTiO₃ thin films with 2.2-0.1 μm thickness on hard stainless steel (SUS) substrates by using the ADM to confirm the causes of dielectric thickness limit showing in BaTiO₃ thin films prepared on SUS substrates and suggest key factors which can overcome the limit. Then, from the measurements of thickness dependence of their dielectric properties, the thickness limit of 0.2 μm was confirmed and to confirm the reason why their dielectric properties could not be measured in the thickness below 0.2 μm, the thickness dependence of leakage current mechanisms in BaTiO₃ films were investigated. As a result, by decreasing the thickness of films from 2.2 to 0.2 μm, the mechanism changed from Poole-Frenkel emission to modified-Schottky emission indicating increase of interface effects. Especially, in the case of 0.2 μm thickness, it was confirmed that the dominant mechanism was Fowler-Nordheim tunneling based on electric field concentration at a high electric field. Consequently, from this investigation of leakage current mechanism, it can be expected that the cause of thickness limits was electric field concentration at rough BaTiO₃/SUS interfaces forming in AD process, and to get over the thickness limit and decrease level of leakage currents, the hard substrates are required to reduce the interface roughness and oxygen vacancies acted as donors should be decreased.     

Analysis of process parameters effects on friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum alloy to advanced high strength steel

Thin sheets of aluminum alloy 6061-T6 and one type of Advanced high strength steel, transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steel have been successfully butt joined using friction stir welding (FSW) technique. The maximum ultimate tensile strength can reach 85% of the base aluminum alloy. Intermetallic compound (IMC) layer of FeAl or Fe₃Al with thickness of less than 1 μm was formed at the Al–Fe interface in the advancing side, which can actually contribute to the joint strength. Tensile tests and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results indicate that the weld nugget can be considered as aluminum matrix composite, which is enhanced by dispersed sheared-off steel fragments encompassed by a thin intermetallic layer or simply intermetallic particles. Effects of process parameters on the joint microstructure evolution were analyzed based on mechanical welding force and temperature that have been measured during the welding process.     

In vivo evaluation of Zr-based bulk metallic glass alloy intramedullary nails in rat femora

Zr-based bulk metallic glasses (BMG) show high corrosion resistance in vitro and higher strength and lower Young’s modulus than crystalline alloys with the similar composition. This study aimed to perform an in vivo evaluation of Zr₆₅Al_7.5Ni₁₀Cu_17.5 BMG. Osteotomy of the femur was done in rats and stabilized with intramedullary nails made of Zr₆₅Al_7.5Ni₁₀Cu_17.5 BMG, Ti–6Al–4V alloy, or 316L stainless steel. Systemic and local effects of each type of nail were evaluated by measuring the levels of Cu and Ni in the blood and the surrounding soft tissue. Changes of the surface of each nail were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Healing of the osteotomy was evaluated by peripheral quantitative computed tomography and mechanical testing. No increase of Cu and Ni levels was recognized. Surface of the BMG showed no noticeable change, while Ti–6Al–4V alloy showed Ca and P deposition and 316L stainless steel showed surface irregularities and pitting by SEM observation. The stress strain index, maximum torque, torsional stiffness, and energy absorption values were larger for the BMG than those for Ti–6Al–4V alloy, although there was no significant difference. The Zr-based BMG can promote osteotomy healing as fast as Ti–6Al–4V alloy, with the possible advantage of the Zr-based BMG that bone bonding is less likely, allowing easier nail removal compared with Ti–6Al–4V alloy. The Zr-based BMG is promising for the use in osteosynthetic devices that are eventually removed.     

Vacuum hot roll bonding of titanium alloy and stainless steel using nickel interlayer

Abstract

Vacuum hot roll bonding of titanium alloy and stainless steel using a nickel interlayer was investigated. No obvious reaction or diffusion layer occurs at the interface between stainless steel and nickel. The interface between titanium alloy and nickel consists of an occludent layer and diffusion layers, and there are the intermetallic compounds (TiNi₃, TiNi, Ti₂Ni and their mixtures) in the layers. The total thickness of intermetallic layers at the interface between titanium alloy and nickel increases with the bonding temperature, and the tensile strength of roll bonded joints decreases with the bonding temperature. The maximum tensile strength of 440·1 MPa was obtained at the bonding temperature of 760°C, the reduction of 20% and the rolling speed of 38 mm s^–1.     

A study of the effect of filler metal thickness on tensile strength for a stainless steel plate-fin structure by experiment and finite element method

This paper presents a study of the effect of filler metal thickness on tensile strength for a stainless steel plate-fin structure by finite element method and experiment. The results show that the filler metal thickness has a great effect on tensile strength. The tensile strength is increased with the filler metal thickness increase, then it keeps stable when the filler metal thickness is 105–140 μm. But it decreases rapidly when the filler metal thickness is larger than 140 μm. The fracture location is shown at the end of vertical fin when the filler metal thickness is 105–140 μm. Specimens with filler metal thickness smaller or larger than 105–140 μm rupture in the brazed filler metal. The optimal filler metal thickness is 105 μm, using which can get higher strength for 304 stainless steel plate-fin structures.     

Effect of continuous cooling heat treatment on interface characteristics of S45C/copper compound casting

The bonding of an S45C steel insert to copper during cast welding and continuous cooling treatment (including: furnace cooling; air cooling; oil quenching and water quenching) was investigated. The interface shear strength was determined using a push-out test. A cast welding layer formed between S45C steel and copper. After continuous cooling heat treatment, a cast welding layer was present near the S45C steel, an irregular layer near the copper matrix, and a middle layer between these two. X-ray diffraction analysis was used to determine that the interface layer consisted of carbon and CuFeO₂.Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) demonstrated that most iron atoms and carbons diffused into the copper matrix. The interface shear strength of the compound casting under furnace-cooling was the largest and that of the compound casting formed by water-quenching was the smallest, and all fractures in the cast welding layer occurred near the S45C steel matrix.     

Effect of welding processes on fatigue crack growth behaviour of AISI 409M ferritic stainless steel joints fabricated using duplex stainless steel fillers

The present investigation aims to study the effect of welding processes such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) on fatigue crack growth behaviour of the ferritic stainless steel (FSS) conforming to AISI 409M grade. Rolled plates of 4 mm thickness were used as the base material and AISI 2209 grade duplex stainless steel (DSS) was used as filler metal, for preparing single pass butt welded joints. Centre cracked tensile (CCT) specimens were used to evaluate the fatigue crack growth behaviour. From this investigation, it is found that the GTAW joints showed superior fatigue crack growth resistance compared with SMAW and GMAW joints. The reasons for the superior performance were discussed in detail.     

不锈钢/钢复合管水压爆炸焊接制造的数值模拟

为研究水压爆炸焊接法制造不锈钢/钢复合管的焊接效果及炸药与复合管之间水层厚度对焊接的影响,对传统内爆法制备双金属复合管的工艺安装进行了优化,并利用有限元软件ANSYS/LS-DYNA建立了不锈钢/钢复合管水压爆炸焊接制造的二维有限元模型,对其焊接过程及变形情况进行了数值模拟研究.在模拟过程中得到复管与基管碰撞结合面节点的速度曲线和结合界面的压力曲线.结果表明:炸药与复管之间水层厚为1.5 cm时,模拟焊接过程中得到复管的最大飞行速度约453 m/s,基复管结合界面的压力约9.46 GPa,均满足爆炸焊接窗口理论计算值的下限要求,可以实现焊接;复管的最大飞行速度随水层厚度增加而减小,复管与基管有效焊接时间随水层厚度增加而增加;炸药与复管之间增加水层能有效地防止基、复管的大变形.水压爆炸焊接法为薄厚度、变形差等特殊材质双金属管的制造提供了一个重要的借鉴与参考.     

Impact performance of friction welded butt joints between 6061-T6 aluminium alloy and type 304 stainless steel

Abstract

The tensile strength and energy absorption for dissimilar metal friction welds between 6061-T6 Al alloy and type 304 stainless steel at high rates of loading were determined using the split Hopkinson bar. Cylindrical tensile specimens machined from as welded butt joints of 13 mm in diameter were used in both static and impact tests. Friction welding was conducted using a brake type friction welding machine under two different welding conditions. The effects of welding conditions and loading rate on the joint tensile properties were examined. Results show that the joint tensile properties were greatly affected by the welding parameters, and were slightly enhanced with increased loading rate. Scanning electron microscope observations revealed that the tensile fracture modes in the butt joint specimens varied with loading rate and depend on welding conditions. Microhardness profiles across the weld interface were measured to investigate the extent of the heat affected zone. The slight enhancement of the joint tensile properties with increasing loading rate is primarily attributed to the strain rate dependence of the thermally softened 6061-T6 Al alloy base material.     

不锈钢/铝合金异种金属激光-MIG熔钎焊工艺研究

分别采用激光-MIG复合焊和单MIG焊,实现了2mm厚的304不锈钢和6061铝合金对接接头的熔钎焊,对比了不同焊接热源对接头显微组织、界面层化合物及力学性能的影响。结果表明,采用激光-MIG复合焊可以获得性能良好的不锈钢-铝对接接头。激光-MIG复合焊接头的界面层化合物为FeAl_2和Fe_4Al_(13),厚度约为5μm;而单MIG焊接头的界面层化合物厚度约为3μm,主要为Fe_4Al_(13)。激光-MIG复合焊接头的抗拉强度为105MPa,比单MIG焊接头提高了10.8MPa,达到铝合金母材的33.9%。接头试样拉伸断裂均起裂于钎焊界面处,并向余高处扩展,且由脆性断裂转变为韧性断裂。