黑河干流中游地区耗水量变化的历史分析

黑河流域水资源极其匮乏，加之地区上的配置不均衡和中游地区水土资源的过度开发，导致黑河下游出现了严重的生态环境问题，已影响到我国北方广大地区生态环境质量，受到国家的高度重视和全社会的广泛关注。黑河水资源开发利用主要集中在中游地区，该区是全国重要的商品粮、蔬菜和经济作物生产基地之一，耗水量占流域耗水量的85％以上，是黑河的主要耗水区和径流利用区。利用黑河上游控制站莺落峡站和中游控制站正义峡站水文资料，分析了黑河中游耗水量的变化，结果表明：20世纪80年代以前黑河中游耗水量在4．4亿m^3左右，比较稳定；进入20世纪80年代以后，耗水量明显增加，80年代耗水量比70年代以前增加了1．97亿－2.49亿m^3;90年代耗水量又比80年代增加了1.64亿m^3左右；80年代以来流域耗水量呈明显增加的趋势，这是以人类活动影响为主的结果。     

An Approach to Disaggregating Total Household Water Consumption into Major End-Uses

The aim of this project is to assign domestic water consumption to different devices based on the information provided by the water meter. We monitored a sample of Barcelona and Murcia with flow switches that recorded when a particular device was in use. In addition, the water meter readings were recorded every 5 and 1 s, respectively, in Barcelona and Murcia. The initial work used Barcelona data, and the method was later verified and adjusted with the Murcia data. The proposed method employs an algorithm that characterizes the water consumption of each device, using Barcelona to establish the initial parameters which, afterwards, provide information for adjusting the parameters of each household studied. Once the parameters have been adjusted, the algorithm assigns the consumption to each device. The efficacy of the assignation process is summarized in terms of: sensitivity and specificity. The algorithm provides a correct identification rate of between 70 % and 80 %; sometimes even higher, depending on how well the chosen parameters reflect household consumption patterns. Considering the high variability of the patterns and the fact that use is characterized by only the aggregate consumption that the water meter provides, the results are quite satisfactory.     

The Perception of Residential Water Tariff,Consumption, and Cost: Evidence of its Determinants Using Survey Data

In a survey of 1,500 households in Zaragoza (Spain), we found that respondents did not accurately know what the price of water was, and what the characteristics of the water tariff were, how much water they consumed, or how much it cost them; they thought they consumed less water than they actually did, and thought that their consumption level was normal; they believed they paid more than they really did, and considered the payments to be appropriate or expensive. Based on this sample of households, this paper analyses what determines the level of accuracy in the perception of consumers about their water tariff, their water consumption, and their total water cost, or, in other words, what determines the closeness between their perception and reality. The methodology applied is based on maximum likelihood estimates using various probit/logit models. The results obtained allow to identify the collectives to whom an information policy should be directed in order to approximate their perceptions closer to the real tariff, consumption and cost of water in households, and to point out the kind of information that should be transmitted in order to contribute to the preservation of water resources.

     

Factors Influencing Per Capita Water Consumption In Urban Areas Of Developing Countries And Their Implications For Management,With Special Reference To The Khartoum Metropolitan Area

ABSRTACT

The fast growing population in Third World countries and the limited physical resources in rural areas have led to the dramatic expansion of the urban areas of these countries. It is now recognized that when planning for the development of these areas, early consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of providing potable water equitably to all users. Detailed studies are necessary for particular situations so as to provide a basis for better management practices.

Khartoum, a growing urban area in Sudan, has been chosen as a case study. A proposed framework and technique of analysis is shown. Factors influencingper capita consumption are correlated and mathematical models have been generated for the two distinct classifictions of consumers: (1) consumers with piped supply and (2) consumers obtaining water from water vendors or from standpipes (squatter settlements).

The most significant factors affecting the consumption appear in the fitted equations. Of these factors, the number of occupants in the household influences the per capita consumption but at a decreasing rate. Price has a significant impact on demand: price elasticities of about -0.60 and -0.78 are obtained for households with piped connections and squatter areas respectively. Water utility authorities can use price as a tool to ration or discourage water consumption in the piped connection households and to increase the rate of consumption in the squatter areas.     

An Applied Assessment Model to Evaluate the Socioeconomic Impact of Water Quality Regulations in Chile

In many developing countries, natural resource management is based on traditional, expert-based methods that often exclude a variety of stakeholders. This paper presents a conceptual model and methodology that represent a first step toward a more integrated evaluation and management of large basins. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the socioeconomic impact of the application of secondary water quality regulations in the Aysén River Basin of Southern Chile. We employ the concept of physical, ecological and social (PHES)-system as a conceptual framework. Three indices based on this framework were created to characterize different aspects of the Aysén Basin: an environmental vulnerability index, an index of the water quality impact of the different economic sectors, and an index that quantifies the economic contribution of these sectors. Finally the three indices were combined as a measure of the socioeconomic impact of the proposed regulations in what we referred to as the ‘applied assessment model’. Our results suggest that the applied regulations would have little socioeconomic impact on the Aysén Basin. Finally we discuss challenges to integrated watershed assessment in the context of developing countries.     

Planning for Implementation of Riparian Buffers in the Feitsui Reservoir Watershed

The Feitsui reservoir is a major water supply source for more than five million people in Northern Taiwan. The reservoir water quality has been good, but is threatened by eutrophication due to excessive nutrient input and siltation due to sediment loads. Recently, the water authorities in Taiwan have made considerable efforts to devise strategies using watershed conservation practices for the protection of Feitsui reservoir water quality. The control of non-point source pollution (NPS) represents one of the major strategies and the use of best management practices (BMPs) is under careful consideration. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness and cost of a full Feitsui watershed implementation of riparian buffer strips and other appropriate conservation practices. Based on the use of watershed simulation models and a statistical relationship between pollution reduction rate and the width and slope of a buffer strip, a methodology for the planning and design of riparian buffer strips was addressed. Data from field experiments were used to calibrate the coefficients of the regression equations. Several planning scenarios were evaluated by means of cost-benefit analysis coupled with net present value method. Data on local construction and maintenance costs for the selected design and location of buffer strips were used in the analysis. Based on several cost-benefit analyses, the scenario for installing buffer strips with 30 m width and 5% slope along both sides of tributary streams in the sub-watersheds with high nutrient (phosphorus) loadings was found to be most cost effective.     

Water Management in Integrated Service Systems: Accounting for Water Flows in Urban Areas

This article focuses on studying the natural and artificial water flows of the service sector from an industrial ecology perspective. The purpose is to determine, in the area under study, the water consumption of the service sector and the most water demanding services in global and relative terms, total water consumption per year and liters per user per year (Lpu) respectively, as well as the existing and potential water flow interrelations among service facilities to reduce their water consumption. Finally we propose measures for water consumption minimization, recycling and reusability based on the results of the diagnosis. The analyzed system is Montjuïc Urban Park (Barcelona, Spain), where the economic activity is based on the service sector (about 200 service facilities and no industrial activities). In the individual study of services we found an average consumption of 75 Lpu, with a large range in the water consumption by service types (between 17 and 156 Lpu), and between facilities of the same service type (51 and 155 Lpu). These results indicate a high level and low regulation of water consumption among the service facilities. In the study of the interrelations between the services we found that a high potential for hydrological saving exists in the system (equivalent to 50% of the potable water inflow from the supply network). The results indicate a lack of ecosystemic and synergic vision in the service sector. Interrelations among water flows have to be established, by means of rainwater collection and the reuse of water flows from swimming pools and ornamental fountains. The article proposes the application of industrial ecology methods to improve water management inside Montjuïc Urban Park and, in general, within any system where the service sector is the main economic activity.     

叶尔羌绿洲水资源利用与耗水分析

应用干旱区平原绿洲四水转化模型,对新疆叶尔羌河平原绿洲的水土资源不同利用情景的水资源转化和消耗进行模拟,研究地下水的适宜开采量和灌溉规模问题。结果表明:现状条件下,社会经济耗水量占总耗水量的53%~60%;如果维持灌溉地年耗水650 mm左右、非灌溉地300 mm左右,那么最大灌溉面积约为850万亩,适宜的地下水利用量约为10亿m3,对应的渠系水利用系数为0.49。     

An Agent-based Modeling Framework for Assessing the Public Health Protection of Water Advisories

In the event that pathogens or toxins are introduced to a water distribution system, a utility manager may identify a threat through water quality data or alerts from public health officials. The utility manager may issue water advisories to warn consumers to reduce water use activities. As consumers react and change water demands, dynamic feedbacks among the community, utility managers, and the engineering infrastructure can create unexpected public health consequences and network hydraulics. A Complex Adaptive System (CAS)-based methodology is developed to couple an engineering model of a water distribution system with agent-based models (ABM) of consumers, public health officials, and utility managers to simulate feedback among management decisions, system hydraulics, and public behavior. A utility manager and a public health official are represented as agents, who respond to the event using a set of rules and equations that are based on a statistical analysis of a set of recorded water events. Consumers are represented as agents who update their water activities based on exposure to the contaminant and warnings from a utility agent and family members. A model of consumer compliance is developed using results from two surveys that report data to characterize consumer perceptions toward information sources during a water contamination event. The ABM framework is applied for an illustrative mid-sized virtual city to quantify the significance of interactions and advisories on public health consequences.     

A one hundred year review of the socioeconomic and ecological systems of Lake St. Clair,North America

There is a growing concern about continued impairment of aquatic ecosystems resulting from increasing population size, land use, climate change, and the feedbacks that may harm human well-being. We describe a 100 year multi-disciplinary overview of changes in Lake St. Clair, North America to identify knowledge gaps and needs to build the foundation for creating coupled human and natural system models. Our historical analysis indicates that the socioeconomic dynamics are inextricably linked to the urban dynamics of the Detroit metropolitan area. Environmental degradation and human health issues led to the adoption of relevant policies, including construction of wastewater treatment facilities by the 1960s. Climate trends during the 100-year period indicate a wetter region, which is influencing lake levels. Since the mid-1980s and 90s invasive zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena rostriformis bugenis) have significantly altered the ecological structure and function of the lake. Waterborne illnesses due to contaminated drinking water were once an issue but current human health risks have shifted to contaminated recreational waters and coastal pollution. Key research needs for building coupled models include geo-referencing socioeconomic and ecological data to accurately represent the processes occurring within the political and watershed boundaries; assessing ecosystem services for human well-being; and developing research hypotheses and management options regarding interactions among land use, people and the lake. Lake St. Clair has gone through extensive changes, both socioeconomically and ecologically over the last 100 years and we suggest that it serves as a useful case study for the larger Great Lakes region.     

Optimal Operation of Pressurized Irrigation Networks with Several Supply Sources

The evolution of water distribution systems to pressurized networks has improved water use efficiency, but also significantly increased energy consumption. However, sustainable irrigated agriculture must be characterized by the reasonable and efficient use of both water and energy. Irrigation sectoring where farmers are organized in turns is one of the most effective measures to reduce energy use in irrigation water distribution networks. Previous methodologies developed for branched irrigation networks with one single source node have resulted in considerable energy savings. However, these methodologies were not suitable for networks with several water supply points. In this work, we develop an optimization methodology (WEBSOM) aimed at minimizing energy consumption and based on operational sectoring for networks with several source nodes. Using the NSGA-II multi-objective genetic algorithm, the optimal sectoring operation calendar that minimizes both energy consumption and pressure deficit is obtained. This methodology is tested in the irrigation district of Palos de la Frontera (Huelva, Spain) with three pumping stations, showing that potential annual energy savings of between 20 % and 29 % can be achieved, thus ensuring full pressure requirements in nearly all hydrants, along with the total satisfaction of irrigation requirements.     

Integrated Assessment of the European WFD Implementation in Extremely Overexploited Aquifers Through Participatory Modelling

Participatory methods provide an increasingly accepted path to integrated water assessment. This research describes an interdisciplinary exercise of scenario design and modelling, which provides a methodology to couple hard science numerical modelling approaches with the involvement of key water actors and socioeconomic issues. A decision support system based on probabilistic methods (Bayesian networks) is the tool chosen for dealing with the interdisciplinary issues involved in this aquifer. Given the long-standing conflicts in the area, modelling work largely focuses on carrying out an impact assessment produced by different scenarios established under the light of the mandatory objectives established by the European Union Water Framework Directive. This methodology is applied to a semi-arid aquifer located in SE Spain (Serral-Salinas) that represents an extreme case of intensive groundwater use. Irrigation has been a catalyst for welfare in the area for the past 40?years, despite the resulting large groundwater drawdown and continuous rise of groundwater pumping energy costs. Modelling results suggest that only a drastic change in the abstraction regime can produce a solution to long term sustainability of the aquifers. In addition, the impact assessment advises that such objectives are unlikely to be met due to the high economic costs of this action.     

Water Resources Sustainability Indicator: Application of the Watershed Characteristics Approach

The quantification of the renewable flux (i.e. sustainable limit) of the hydrologic system is the prerequisite for transitioning from unsustainable to sustainable water resources management. The application of the Watershed Characteristics Approach to estimate the renewable flux of the hydrologic system was demonstrated using Minnesota’s (USA) Twin Cities Metropolitan Area (TCMA). The methodology quantified the relationships between landscape properties and water balance characteristics, resulting in the development of functioning hierarchical hydrogeological units with corresponding recharge rates. This renewable flux is a key quantitative characteristic for the assessment of a sustainability indicator. The key indicator of sustainable water use is the ratio of the renewable capacity of the hydrologic system to the water use by humans and the environment. By incorporating water use estimates for the TCMA relative to the calculated recharge rates, sustainability indicators for groundwater and total flux were calculated for the metropolitan area. As far back as the 1890s, declines in TCMA groundwater levels have been observed, which correspond to the unsustainable groundwater extraction estimates identified in the results of this study. The non-stationary characteristics of urban watersheds influenced by ongoing land use/land cover changes as illustrated in this paper, emphasizes the need for conservative hydrologic planning to achieve sustainable water management. This approach can also be applied to other metropolitan areas as a hydrologic tool for decision-makers to design sustainable water policy and prevent the over-extraction of the water flowing through the hydrologic system.     

Assessing the economic impact of a low-cost water-saving irrigation technology in Indian Punjab: the tensiometer

ABSTRACT

This article assesses the impact of the tensiometer on the consumption of groundwater and electric power in paddy cultivation in Indian Punjab, and its subsequent economic benefits. We find that compared to the continuous flooding method, the tensiometer-based application of irrigation reduces water and power consumption by 13%, cutting variable costs by 7% without any yield penalty. If 30% of the paddy area is irrigated following tensiometer-based schedules, then the state could save a total of 0.67 million ha m of water and 1516 million kWh of electric power in 2010–2025, with aggregate economic benefits of US$ 459 million.     

The climate footprint: a practical tool to address climate change.

Waternet supplies clean and safe drinking water to the homes of almost one million Amsterdam citizens, and also collects and treats the resulting wastewater, ensuring its safe discharge back into the water system. Climate change poses a growing challenge. Firstly Waternet is affected by the consequences of climate change, such as longer periods of drought and heavier bursts of rainfall. Secondly, the company also plays a role in causing climate change, as emissions from the Amsterdam water chain contribute to global warming. This paper aims to focus attention on mitigation as an inseparable part of adaptation-programmes. The Climate Footprint methodology is applied to the integrated Amsterdam water chain: from the point of withdrawing water from the surface/groundwater water system for drinking water production, to the point of returning the purified wastewater to the surface water/groundwater system. In-between, the water is pre-treated with chemicals, transported, purified by dune-filtration, again treated for drinking water quality, distributed over the area of Amsterdam, used in households and industries, collected from there by sewers and pumps, transported to purification plants and finally again treated with chemicals and purified to end with acceptable surface water quality. The whole process generates CO(2)-emissions in three different ways: * Sewage treatment transforms the remains of human food consumption into CO(2). These emissions do not originate from fossil fuels, but from food. They remain in a short carbon cycle and do not contribute to global warming. In fact, the sludge remaining from the purification plant is an important energy source. * Transport and purification processes require energy; this results in direct emissions e.g. in the case of fuel or natural gas use, and indirect emissions in the case of electricity. * The use of chemicals and materials for construction, transport systems, and all other facilities and services to keep the system running does require suppliers of these goods and services to consume energy and thus causes indirect emission. An inventory of these three different types of emissions is made for the (about) 1990 situation, the 2004 situation, and prognosticated for the 2007 situation. The 2004 situation reveals a 0.16 ton CO(2) equivalent emission per person. Compared to the worldwide 4 ton emission per person, this would mean a 4% contribution from the urban water system. With all the improvements scheduled, a 50% elimination of greenhouse gas emissions looks attainable for the 2007 situation. Further possibilities for emission reductions may be found by talking to suppliers about the indirect emissions.     

South-eastern Anatolia Integrated Development Project (GAP), Turkey: An Overview of Issues of Sustainability

The Republic of Turkey has initiated a comprehensivesocioeconomic development project in its less developed south-east region. The South-eastern Anatolia Project, or GAP to use its Turkish acronym, aims at improving the living standards of some 6 million residents of this 75 000 km2 region by mobilizing the natural resources of this area for integrated development on a regional scale. GAP is planned, designed, coordinated and implemented in an integrated manner taking into account interactions among different sectors as well as activities within individual sectors. The South-eastern Anatolia Project, in its historical context, was formulated as a packageof water and land resources development projects in the 1970s, which was later transformed, in the early 1980s, to a multi-sectoral, socioeconomic regional developmentprogramme.A Regional Administration (GAP-RDA) was established in 1989 for the management of the programme.Sectors covered in the development programmesinclude irrigation, hydropower, agriculture, urban infrastructure, rural development, forestry, healthcare and education among others. The water resources programme of the US$32 billion project includes 22 dams, 19 hydropowerplants and irrigation of 1.7 million ha of land. This paper describes, in brief, the size, main features, financial aspects and the status of the integrated socioeconomic project in its general context thus forming the basis for operational as well as specific issues. It then attempts to provide an overall discussion of the sustainability framework for development in its different but highly interrelated facets. After establishing the main, global benefits the paper comments on the adverse, undesired impacts along with the measures adapted to mitigate them. The paper later describes, in more detail, environmental impact studies, their main findings and proposals related to watersheds and irrigation development with an emphasis on management and environmental health matters together with the measures taken. The paper concludes by emphasizing the commitment to sustainable development and to planning ahead rather than damage reduction, and the effort to integrate relevant and sometimes conflicting aspects rather than compromise.     

The Management of Urban Water Conflicts in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo

Abstract

In Latin America, after the democratization process in the 1980s, public pressure imposed new models of management in the water sector. These new models have been extremely successful in making the political class more aware of the water problem, as illustrated by the Brazilian example. Public pressure forced congressmen to propose a new Federal Constitution in 1988 in which environmental and water issues are explicitly considered. This paper discusses the technical, legal, and institutional aspects of integrated water management in the Upper Tiet[etilde] basin in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, with 16.5 million inhabitants and the largest industrial complex in Latin America. Emphasis is placed on the conflicting interests of upstream and downstream groups in the basin. A successful experiment of integrated water resources planning on a watershed basis is described, where modern decision support systems technology is combined with effective public participation.     

基于富余风光资源利用的调水线路评价研究

近年来西部地区在新能源发展中供给侧过剩,严重制约了未来西部地区新能源的进一步发展,若将弃光弃风的利用与跨流域长距离调水工程相结合,提出适合西部地区经济社会发展特点的水资源空间配置方案,则对于推进西北地区可持续发展和社会稳定具有十分重要的战略意义。为了评价调水线路的设置合理性与用能规模,本文从富余风光资源利用的角度,在分析调水工程用能规模及空间分布的基础上,构建调水工程耗能计算模型,并在西藏自治区设定一条调水线路,经计算该线路可规划水电站5座,总引水年发电量1286.23亿kW·h,规划梯级泵站5个,总引水年耗电量1391.95万kW·h,总需用年电量105.72万kW·h,可充分应用西藏地区富余风光发电量。     

地下水超采的经济损失计算方法及其在典型地区的应用

在分析我国地下水超采灾害、人口分布和社会经济发展情况的基础上,将地下水超采区划分为轻微灾害区、一般灾害区、经济不发达的严重灾害区和经济发达的严重灾害区四类.根据各类型区的实际统计资料,采用回归分析方法,建立各类型区的地下水超采经济评估模型.应用该模型分析天津市控制超采地下水的经济效益及利用南水北调工程供水作为替代水源的经济可行性.     

Application of the Shuffled Frog Leaping Algorithm for the Optimization of a General Large-Scale Water Supply System

A water supply system is a complex network of pipes, canals and storage and treatment facilities that collects, treats, stores, and distributes water to consumers. Increasing population and its associated demands requires systems to be expanded and adapted over time to provide a sustainable water supply. Comprehensive design tools are needed to assist managers determine how to plan for future growth. In this study, a general large-scale water supply system model was developed to minimize the total system cost by integrating a mathematical supply system representation and applying an improved shuffled frog leaping algorithm optimization scheme (SFLA). The developed model was applied to two hypothetical water communities. The operational strategies and the capacities for the system components including water transport and treatment facilities are model decision variables. An explicit representation of energy consumption cost for the transporting water in the model assists in determining the efficacy of satellite wastewater treatment facilities. Although the water supply systems studied contained highly nonlinear terms in the formulation as well as several hundred decisions variables, the stochastic search algorithm, SFLA, successfully found solutions that satisfied all the constraints for the studied networks.