The effects of complex wrist and forearm posture on wrist range of motion.

Previous research on wrist functionally has focused almost entirely on range of motion (ROM) in 2 or 3 isolated planes (flexion/extension, radial/ulnar deviation, and forearm pronation/supination), without investigating the potential effects of complex wrist/forearm posture on ROM. A quantitative analysis of these effects on wrist ROM was performed. ROM was measured in one plane using both a manual method and an electrogoniometer while the participant maintained a fixed, secondary wrist and forearm posture. The study revealed that combinations of wrist/forearm postures have significant effects on wrist ROM; the largest effects are those of wrist flexion/extension on radial deviation ROM. The study also found that, consistent with previous research, wrist deviation measurements obtained with an electrogoniometer were significantly different from those obtained manually. Biomechanical theories for the results obtained are discussed. This research could be used to enhance ergonomic evaluation techniques by providing a more accurate risk assessment of certain complex wrist postures, particularly those in which wrist flexion/extension is combined with radial deviation.     

一种基于WPT和LVQ神经网络的手部动作识别方法

针对表面肌电信号(SEMG)的手部动作识别,提出一种采用小波包变换(WPT)和学习向量量化(LVQ)算法的神经网络分类器。对SEMG信号进行基于熵准则的最优小波包基分解得到各个节点分解系数,计算信号各个节点相应子频段的系数能量,归一化处理后的特征向量输入LVQ神经网络,实现基于SEMG的手部动作识别。实验结果表明,采取两路SEMG信号,该分类器能有效识别伸腕、屈腕、展拳和握拳4种动作模式,达到96%的识别率,能可靠应用于2个自由度肌电假手的控制。     

Psychophysical studies of repetitive wrist flexion and extension

Abstract

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the feasibility of using psychophysical methods to determine maximum acceptable forces for various types and frequencies of repetitive wrist motion. Four adjustable work stations were built to simulate repetitive wrist flexion with a power grip, wrist flexion with a pinch grip, and wrist extension with a power grip. The study consisted of two separate experiments. Subjects worked for two days per week during the first experiment, and five days per week during the second experiment. Fifteen women completed the first experiment, working seven hours each day, two days per week, for 20 days. Repetition rates of 2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 motions per minute were used with each flexion and extension task. Maximum acceptable torques were determined for the various motions, grips, and repetition rates without dramatic changes in wrist strength, tactile sensitivity, or number of symptoms. Fourteen different women completed the second experiment, performing a wrist flexion motion (power grip) fifteen times per minute, seven hours per day, five days per week, for 23 days. There were no significant differences in maximum acceptable torque from day to day. However, the average maximum acceptable torque for a five days per week exposure was 36-3% lower than for the same task performed two days per week. Assuming that maximum acceptable torques decrease 36-3% for other repetition rates and motions, tables of maximum acceptable force were developed for female wrist flexion (power grip), female wrist flexion (pinch grip), and female wrist extension (power grip).     

Off-road machine controls: investigating the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome

Occupationally induced hand and wrist repetitive strain injuries (RSI) such as carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) are a growing problem in North America. The purpose of this investigation was to apply a modification of the wrist flexion/ extension models of Armstrong and Chaffin (1978, 1979) to determine if joystick controller use in off-road machines could contribute to the development of CTS. A construction equipment cab in the laboratory was instrumented to allow force, displacement and angle measurements from 10 operators while they completed an approximately 30-min joystick motion protocol. The investigation revealed that both the external fingertip and predicted internal wrist forces resulting from the use of these joysticks were very low, indicating that the CTS risk associated with this factor was slight. However, the results also indicated that, particularly for the 'forward' and 'left' right side motions and for all left side motions, force was exerted by other portions of the fingers and hand, thereby under-predicting the tendon tension and internal wrist forces. Wrist angles observed were highest for motions that moved the joysticks to the sides rather than front to back. Thus, the 'right' and 'left' motions for both hands posed a higher risk for CTS development. When the right hand moved into the 'right' position and the left hand moved into the 'left' position, the wrist went into extension in both cases. Results indicate that neither learning nor fatigue affected the results.     

基于眼动辅助脑电信号的手部动作分类方法

提出一种利用小波包变换和支持向量机对手部动作的运动想象脑电信号进行分类的方法。在相关眼动辅助情况下采集想象手部动作时的C3、C4 、P3和P4通道脑电信号,用小波包变换的方法提取4种特征节律波,分别计算每种节律波能量占4种节律波能量之和的比值作为特征,然后将16维特征向量输入支持向量机分类器进行手部动作分类。对上翻、下翻、展拳、握拳4种手部动作的分类实验中平均识别率为82。3%,表明眼动辅助能有效提高运动想象脑电信号可分性。     

Off-road machine controls: investigating the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome

Occupationally induced hand and wrist repetitive strain injuries (RSI) such as carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) are a growing problem in North America. The purpose of this investigation was to apply a modification of the wrist flexion/extension models of Armstrong and Chaffin (1978, 1979) to determine if joystick controller use in oV-road machines could contribute to the development of CTS. A construction equipment cab in the laboratory was instrumented to allow force, displacement and angle measurements from 10 operators while they completed an ? 30-min joystick motion protocol. The investigation revealed that both the external fingertip and predicted internal wrist forces resulting from the use of these joysticks were very low, indicating that the CTS risk associated with this factor was slight. However, the results also indicated that, particularly for the ‘forward’ and ‘left’ right side motions and for all left side motions, force was exerted by other portions of the fingers and hand, thereby under-predicting the tendon tension and internal wrist forces. Wrist angles observed were highest for motions that moved the joysticks to the sides rather than front to back. Thus, the ‘right’ and ‘left’ motions for both hands posed a higher risk for CTS development. When the right hand moved into the ‘right’ position and the left hand moved into the ‘left’ position, the wrist went into extension in both cases. Results indicate that neither learning nor fatigue aVected the results.     

Maximal dynamic grip force and wrist torque: the effects of gender, exertion direction, angular velocity, and wrist angle

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of gender, exertion direction, angular velocity and wrist angle on simultaneous grip force and wrist torque under the isokinetic condition. The study used 20 participants (10 males and 10 females) and included 6 angular velocities (15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90°/s) and 2 wrist exertion directions (flexion and extension) over the wrist range of motion of 70° flexion to 60° extension in 5° increments. Similar to other studies, males and flexion exertion produced larger forces than females and extension exertion, respectively. However, the largest forces were generated at near extreme flexion of the wrist and the dependent variable of angular velocity was not practically significant. These results can contribute to the evaluation of cumulative trauma syndromes, but there is a need for more research on the dynamic measures of the hand and wrist complex and for standard development for dynamic force measurement.     

Isokinetic strength characteristics in wrist flexion and extension

A laboratory experiment was conducted to measure strength characteristics in dynamic (isokinetic) wrist flexion and extension. Twenty four college-age males exerted their maximum torque in both concentric flexion and extension at 60, 120, and 180°/s of angular velocity through a ±60° range of deviation from wrist neutral. Results show that velocity and motion direction significantly effected both peak torque as well as the postural displacement of peak torque. The value of peak torque decreased with an increase in velocity and the wrist angle at peak torque generally moved to a more deviated, flexed posture (from neutral) with increasing velocity as well. Peak torque for all velocity and motion-type conditions tested occurred in a flexed posture relative to neutral. It is anticipated that these results may be of use as biomechanically based considerations in the evaluation and design of upper extremity tasks involving wrist flexion/extension as well as to perhaps give insight into functional characteristics of the wrist. Finally, regression equations were developed to aid in the prediction of peak torque based upon task, individual and/or population parameters.

Relevance to industry

Results from this study should enhance the overall understanding of wrist functioning. Specifically, motion type, velocity of movement and wrist posture are important ergonomic design considerations. These results can also be used to modify existing biomechanical models that do not consider wrist variables.     

Predicting peak pinch strength: Artificial neural networks vs. regression

Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) of the upper extremities are one of the major ergonomics areas of research. Pinching is a common risk factor associated with the development of hand/wrist CTDs. The capacity standards of peak pinch strength for various postures are needed to design the tasks in harmony with the workers. This paper describes the formulation, building and comparison of pinch strength prediction models that were obtained using two approaches: Statistical and artificial neural networks (ANN). Statistical and ANN models were developed to predict the peak chuck pinch strength as a function of different combinations of five elbow and seven shoulder flexion angles, and several anthropometric and physiological variables. The two modeling approaches were compared. The results indicate ANN models to provide more accurate predictions over the standard statistical models.     

Maximum acceptable forces for repetitive wrist extension with a pinch grip

This study represents a continuation of a series of psychophysical studies on repetitive motions of the wrist conducted at the Liberty Mutual Research Center for Safety and Health. The purpose of the study was to quantify maximum acceptable forces for extension motions of the wrist performed with a pinch grip. Subjects grasped a handle with a pinch grip and moved it through a 1.57 rad (90°) extension wrist motion (similar to a light assembly operation). A psychophysical methodology was used in which the subject adjusted the resistance on the handle, and the experimenter manipulated or controlled all other variables. Twenty subjects performed the task at repetition rates of 15, 20 and 25 motions per minute. Subjects performed for 7 h per day, 5 days per week, for 4 weeks. The subjects were instructed to work as if they were on an incentive basis, getting paid for the amount of work they performed. Symptoms were recorded by the subjects during the last 5 min of each hour. The results are presented and compared with maximum acceptable forces for other types of wrist motion investigated in previous studies. Maximum acceptable force for wrist extension with a pinch grip is smaller than any of the other motions investigated so far.

Relevance to industry

Cumulative trauma disorders of the upper extremities continue to be a problem for industrial workers who perform repetitive tasks. Although a number of physical risk factors have been identified, there are very few data available for establishing acceptable levels of these risk factors. This study attempted to collect such data.     

Guidelines for wrist posture based on carpal tunnel pressure thresholds

OBJECTIVE: To develop work guidelines for wrist posture based on carpal tunnel pressure. Background: Wrist posture is considered a risk factor for distal upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders, and sustained wrist deviation from neutral at work may be associated with carpal tunnel syndrome. However, the physiologic basis for wrist posture guidelines at work is limited. METHODS: The relationship of wrist posture to carpal tunnel pressure was examined in 37 healthy participants. The participants slowly moved their wrists in extension-flexion and radioulnar deviation while wrist posture and carpal tunnel pressure were recorded. The wrist postures associated with pressures of 25 and 30 mmHg were identified for each motion and used to determine the 25th percentile wrist angles (the angles that protect 75% of the study population from reaching a pressure of 25 or 30 mmHg). RESULTS: Using 30 mmHg, the 25th percentile angles were 32.7 degrees (95% confidence interval [CI] = 27.2-38.1 degrees) for wrist extension, 48.6 degrees (37.7 -59.4 degrees) for flexion, 21.8 degrees (14.7-29.0 degrees) for radial deviation, and 14.5 degrees (9.6-19.4 degrees) for ulnar deviation. For 25 mmHg, the 25th percentile angles were 26.6 degrees and 37.7 degrees for extension and flexion, with radial and ulnar deviation being 17.8 degrees and 12.1 degrees, respectively. CONCLUSION: Further research can incorporate the independent contributions of pinch force and finger posture into this model. APPLICATION: The method presented can provide wrist posture guidelines for the design of tools and hand-intensive tasks.     

Effects of combined wrist flexion/extension and forearm rotation and two levels of relative force on discomfort

This study investigated perceived discomfort in an isometric wrist flexion task. Independent variables were wrist flexion/extension (55%, 35% flexion, neutral, 35% and 55% extension ranges of motion (ROM)), forearm rotation (60%, 30% prone, neutral, 30% and 60% supine ROM) and two levels of flexion force (10% and 20% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC)). Discomfort was significantly affected by flexion force, forearm rotation and a two-way interaction of force with forearm rotation (each p < 0.05). High force for 60%ROM forearm pronation and supination resulted in increasingly higher discomfort for these combinations. Flexion forces were set relative to the MVC in each wrist posture and this appears to be important in explaining a lack of significant effect (p = 0.34) for flexion/extension on discomfort. Regression equations predicting discomfort were developed and used to generate iso-discomfort contours, which indicate regions where the risk of injury should be low and others where it is likely to be high. Regression equations predicting discomfort and iso-discomfort contours are presented, which indicate combinations of upper limb postures for which discomfort is predicted to be low, and others where it is likely to be high. These are helpful in the study of limits for risk factors associated with upper limb musculoskeletal injury in industry.     

基于磁场刺激的肌电信号模式识别的研究

对于人体表面肌电（SEMG）信号提出一种新的研究方法，即在磁场刺激下，采用小波变换的方法，对从掌长肌、肱桡肌、尺侧腕屈肌和肱二头肌上采集的4路表面肌电信号进行分析，并提取其6级小波分解系数绝对值累加和的平均值作为信号的特征．构建特征矢量．输入神经网络分类器进行模式识别，经过训练能够成功地识别出握举、展拳、腕内旋、腕外旋、屈腕、伸腕、前臂内旋、前臂外旋8种运动模式．实验结果表明，该方法识别率高，所需数据量少．运算速度快，实时性好，为肌电等生物电信号的研究提供了一种新方法．     

Trunk kinematics of one-handed lifting,and the effects of asymmetry and load weight

Abstract

This study investigated trunk kinematic differences between lifts performed using either one hand (unsupported) or two hands. These effects were studied while beginning the lifts from different asymmetric starting positions and while lifting different load weights. Each subject lifted a box from a lower to an upper platform under one- and two-handed lifting conditions. Subjects wore a lumbar spine electrogoniometer, from which relative motion components were calculated in the trunk's three cardinal planes. Results of this study showed that one-handed lifting resulted in significantly higher ranges of motion in the lateral and transverse planes and greater flexion in the sagittal plane. Back motion characteristics previously found to be associated with low back disorders were all significantly higher for one-handed lifts. The two-handed lift technique, on the other hand, produced overall faster trunk motions in the sagittal plane and equal or larger acceleration and deceleration magnitudes in all planes of motion. Increases in load asymmetry affected trunk kinematics, in that magnitude values for range of motion, velocity and acceleration became much greater with increasingly asymmetric load positions. Increasing the load weight appeared to have less of an effect on trunk kinematics, with increases in position mostly occurring during sagittal and lateral bending. These results suggest that unsupported one-handed lifting loads the spine more than two-handed lifts, due to the added coupling. Applying these results to a previously developed model, one-handed lifting was also found to increase one's risk of suffering a low back disorder.     

Effect of wrist position on grip force sense in healthy adults

To achieve a better understanding of the causes of higher rates of musculoskeletal disorders and to develop preventive strategies to decrease the risk of injury and optimally design hand tools, it is necessary to understand the effects of both wrist position and force level on grip force sense. In this study, the effects of both wrist position and force level on grip force sense in healthy males during an ipsilateral force reproduction task were investigated. Twenty healthy subjects were instructed to produce varying levels of target forces (i.e., 10%, 30%, and 50% of maximal voluntary isometric contraction [MVIC]) for five wrist positions (i.e., neutral position, full radial deviation, full ulnar deviation, full‐extension, and full flexion), and to reproduce these forces using the same hand. The results of our study revealed that the absolute error, constant error, and MVIC decreased as the wrist joint angle deviated from the neutral position. Subjects had a more accurate estimation of medium target force (30% MVIC), while low target force (10% MVIC) was overestimated and high target force (50% MVIC) was underestimated, in contrast to most previous studies.     

The interacting effects of forearm rotation and exertion direction on male and female wrist strength

The accurate estimation of wrist strength is an important component of ergonomics task evaluation, as a vast majority of occupational tasks involve use of the hands to generate forces and moments. The purpose of this study was to examine the interacting effects of forearm rotation (pronation/supination) and wrist exertion direction on strength at the wrist joint in males and females. A total of 24 male and female participants performed maximum isometric wrist exertions while maintaining a non-deviated wrist posture (no flexion/extension or radial/ulnar deviation) and an open hand. Maximum wrist moments were obtained in combinations of three forearm rotations (90° pronation, neutral, 90° supination) and four exertion directions (flexion, extension, radial and ulnar deviation). A greater effect of forearm rotation was observed for males, as strength in the neutral forearm posture was significantly different than pronated and supinated postures in 5 of 8 comparisons. For females, both wrist flexion and extension strengths were higher in neutral, compared to supinated forearm postures. The findings of this study suggest that wrist strength does depend on forearm rotation, and this interaction between axes needs to be accounted for in future strength capability estimates.Relevance to industryThis study shows that wrist strength estimates, currently used by ergonomics software packages in industry, can be improved to more accurately reflect the actual wrist strength capabilities of workers during hand-intensive tasks.     

Effect of handle design on movement dynamics and muscle co-activation in a wrist flexion task

Arm and wrist manipulanda are commonly used as input devices in teleoperation and gaming applications, establish a physical interface to patients in several rehabilitation robots, and are applied as advanced research tools in biomechanics and neuroscience. Despite the fact that the physical interface, i.e. the handle through which the wrist/hand is attached to the manipulator, may influence interaction and movement behavior, the effects of handle design on these parameters has received little attention. Yet, a poor handle design might lead to overexertion and altered movement dynamics, or result in misinterpretation of results in research studies. In this study, twelve healthy subjects performed repetitions of a wrist flexion task against a dynamic load generated by a 1-DOF robotic wrist manipulandum. Three different handle designs were qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated based on wrist movement kinematics and dynamics, patterns of finger and wrist muscle activity, and ergonomics criteria such as perceived comfort and fatigue. The three proposed designs were further compared to a conventional joystick-like handle. Task performance as well as kinematic and kinetic parameters were found to be unaffected by handle design. Nevertheless, differences were found in perceived task difficulty, comfort and levels of muscle activation of wrist and finger muscles, with significantly higher muscle activation when using a joystick-like design, where the handle is completely enclosed by the hand. Comfort was rated high for the flat handle, adapted to the natural curvature of the hand with the fingers extended. These results may inform for the design of handles serving as physical interface in teleoperation applications, robot-assisted rehabilitation and biomechanics/neuroscience research.     

Effect of protective gloves on hand movement: an exploratory study

This exploratory study was conducted to determine whether wearing protective gloves limits the range of motion that the hand can complete. The kinematic motion of the hand/wrist/forearm of two participants was analysed during the performance of two tasks typical of pesticide applicators. High-speed cinematography was used to collect data which were then digitized and combined to produce three-dimensional data. Graphs of the transformed data showed that in comparison with the barehanded state, the protective glove decreased the abduction/adduction and supination/pronation ranges that the hand could complete. Extension/flexion did not appear to be affected. Overall, kinematic motion of the hand appeared to decrease while wearing protective gloves.     

Psychophysical study of six hand movements.

This study represents a continuation of a series of psychophysical studies on repetitive motions of the wrist and hand conducted at the Liberty Mutual Research Center for Safety and Health. The purpose of the study was to quantify maximum acceptable forces of six motions performed on separate days but within the context of the same experiment. The six motions were wrist flexion with a power grip, wrist extension with a power grip, wrist flexion with a pinch grip, wrist extension with a pinch grip, ulnar deviation with a power grip, and a handgrip task (with a power grip). A psychophysical methodology was used in which the subject adjusted the resistance on the handle and the experimenter manipulated or controlled all other variables. Thirty-one subjects performed the six tasks at repetition rates of 15, 20 and 25 motions/min. Subjects performed the tasks for 7 h per day, 5 days per week, for 4 weeks. The subjects were instructed to work as if they were on an incentive basis, getting paid for the amount of work performed. Symptoms were recorded by the subjects during the last 5 min of each hour. The results revealed that maximum acceptable torques ranged from 11 to 19% of maximum isometric torque depending on frequency and motion. Maximum acceptable torques for the tasks that could be compared with previous studies showed the same patterns of response. However, the selected forces were substantially lower using the mixed protocol. A table of maximum acceptable torques and forces is presented for application in the field.     

Psychophysical study of six hand movements

This study represents a continuation of a series of psychophysical studies on repetitive motions of the wrist and hand conducted at the Liberty Mutual Research Center for Safety and Health. The purpose of the study was to quantify maximum acceptable forces of six motions performed on separate days but within the context of the same experiment. The six motions were wrist flexion with a power grip, wrist extension with a power grip, wrist flexion with a pinch grip, wrist extension with a pinch grip, ulnar deviation with a power grip, and a handgrip task (with a power grip). A psychophysical methodology was used in which the subject adjusted the resistance on the handle and the experimenter manipulated or controlled all other variables. Thirty-one subjects performed the six tasks at repetition rates of 15, 20 and 25 motions/min. Subjects performed the tasks for 7 h per day, 5 days per week, for 4 weeks. The subjects were instructed to work as if they were on an incentive basis, getting paid for the amount of work performed. Symptoms were recorded by the subjects during the last 5 min of each hour. The results revealed that maximum acceptable torques ranged from 11 to 19% of maximum isometric torque depending on frequency and motion. Maximum acceptable torques for the tasks that could be compared with previous studies showed the same patterns of response. However, the selected forces were substantially lower using the mixed protocol. A table of maximum acceptable torques and forces is presented for application in the field.