Dietary exposure assessment of Danish consumers to dithiocarbamate residues in food: a comparison of the deterministic and probabilistic approach

Probabilistic and deterministic estimates of the acute and chronic exposure of the Danish populations to dithiocarbamate residues were performed. The Monte Carlo Risk Assessment programme (MCRA 4.0) was used for the probabilistic risk assessment. Food consumption data were obtained from the nationwide dietary survey conducted in 2000--02. Residue data for 5721 samples from the monitoring programme conducted in the period 1998--2003 were used for dithiocarbamates, which had been determined as carbon disulphide. Contributions from 26 commodities were included in the calculations. Using the probabilistic approach, the daily acute intakes at the 99.9% percentile for adults and children were 11.2 and 28.2 microg kg(-1) body weight day(-1), representing 5.6% and 14.1% of the ARfD for maneb, respectively. When comparing the point estimate approach with the probabilistic approach, the outcome of the point estimate calculations was generally higher or comparable with the outcome of the probabilistic approach at the 99.9 percentile (consumers only). The chronic exposures for adults and children were 0.35 and 0.76 microg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) at the 99.9 percentile, representing 0.7% and 1.5%, respectively, of the acceptable daily intake for mancozeb and maneb at 50 microg kg(-1) body weight.     

Dietary exposure assessment of Danish consumers to dithiocarbamate residues in food: a comparison of the deterministic and probabilistic approach.

Probabilistic and deterministic estimates of the acute and chronic exposure of the Danish populations to dithiocarbamate residues were performed. The Monte Carlo Risk Assessment programme (MCRA 4.0) was used for the probabilistic risk assessment. Food consumption data were obtained from the nationwide dietary survey conducted in 2000--02. Residue data for 5721 samples from the monitoring programme conducted in the period 1998--2003 were used for dithiocarbamates, which had been determined as carbon disulphide. Contributions from 26 commodities were included in the calculations. Using the probabilistic approach, the daily acute intakes at the 99.9% percentile for adults and children were 11.2 and 28.2 microg kg(-1) body weight day(-1), representing 5.6% and 14.1% of the ARfD for maneb, respectively. When comparing the point estimate approach with the probabilistic approach, the outcome of the point estimate calculations was generally higher or comparable with the outcome of the probabilistic approach at the 99.9 percentile (consumers only). The chronic exposures for adults and children were 0.35 and 0.76 microg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) at the 99.9 percentile, representing 0.7% and 1.5%, respectively, of the acceptable daily intake for mancozeb and maneb at 50 microg kg(-1) body weight.     

Probabilistic assessment of the cumulative dietary acute exposure of the population of Denmark to organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides

Organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides are acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides and as such have a common mode of action. We assessed the cumulative acute exposure of the population of Denmark to 25 organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide residues from the consumption of fruit, vegetables and cereals. The probabilistic approach was used in the assessments. Residue data obtained from the Danish monitoring programme carried out in the period 2004–2007, which included 6704 samples of fruit, vegetables and cereals, were used in the calculations. Food consumption data were obtained from the nationwide dietary survey conducted in 2000–2002. Contributions from 43 commodities were included in the calculations. We used the relative potency factor (RPF) approach to normalize the toxicity of the various organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides to the two index compounds chlorpyriphos and methamidophos. RPF values derived from the literature were used in the calculations. We calculated the cumulative acute exposure to 1.8% and 0.8% of the acute reference dose (ARfD) of 100 µg kg^–1 body weight (bw) day^–1 of chlorpyrifos as an index compound at the 99.9th percentile (P99.5) for children and adults, respectively. When we used methamidophos as the index compound, the cumulative acute intakes were calculated to 31.3% and 13.8% of the ARfD of 3 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 at P99.9 for children and adults, respectively. With both index compounds, the greatest contributor to the cumulative acute exposure was apple. The results show that there is no cumulative acute risk for Danish consumers to acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides.     

Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisps to the Spanish population

Potato crisps are one of the food commodities that contribute most to overall dietary human exposure of acrylamide. This investigation has estimated the dietary exposure to acrylamide form potato crisps in the Spanish population. Sampling of potato crisps (n = 36) from 16 different producers were carried out in March 2008. An average level of 740 µg kg^?1 (ranging from 81 to 2622 µg kg^?1; minimum to maximum) and a median of 592 µg kg^?1 were obtained. Acrylamide levels in marketed potato crisps have been significantly reduced (nearly to 50%) compared with a previous sampling performed 4 years earlier. The observed signal value (90th percentile) was 1377 µg kg^?1 with 86% of the samples with acrylamide levels lower than 1000 µg kg^?1. Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisp consumption in the total Spanish population was estimated to be 0.042 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 by using a deterministic approach based on the National consumption database. In a second study, dietary exposure (based on a 3-day food record) was determined to be 0.053 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for the adult population (17–60 years) and 0.142 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for children (7–12 years). The contribution of potato crisps to the estimated dietary acrylamide exposure of the Spanish population is moderate as compared with other European Member States.     

Total mercury in milled rice and brown rice from China and health risk evaluation

Total mercury (THg) levels in 440 pairs of milled rice samples and brown rice samples from 15 major rice grain-producing provinces of China were measured and the associated health risk via rice consumption for different age categories of Chinese population was also assessed. THg contents were measured by a direct mercury analyser and the limit of detection (LOD) was 1.5 μg kg^?1. The THg levels for milled rice samples and brown rice samples varied from non-detected to 17.8 μg kg^?1 and 1.5 to 25.4 μg kg^?1, respectively, with a mean level of 3.4 μg kg^?1 and 4.9 μg kg^?1, respectively. The THg levels in all milled and brown rice samples were generally low, except three brown rice samples having concentrations above the legally set value for cereals (20 μg kg^?1 Hg). THg intakes for different age categories were estimated according to THg content and corresponding rice consumption and the associated health risk was evaluated by the corresponding provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for THg (5.0 μg kg^?1 bw week^?1), which was established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The 50th percentile of the THg intakes via milled rice and brown rice consumption for different age categories was in the range 0.09–0.19 μg kg^?1 bw week^?1 and 0.14–0.27 μg kg^?1 bw week^?1, respectively, well below the PTWI, suggesting that the associated health risk is relatively low. However, the 99.9th percentile of the THg intakes for 2–4-year-old children amounted up to 20.6% of the PTWI (milled rice) and 29.5% of the PTWI (brown rice), which deserves attention.     

Nitrite and nitrate content in meat products and estimated intake in Denmark from 1998 to 2006

The content of nitrite and nitrate in cured meat products has been monitored in Denmark seven times between 1995 and 2006. The maximum permitted added amounts of sodium nitrite in Denmark (60 mg kg^?1 for most products up to 150 mg kg^?1 for special products) have not been exceeded, except for a few samples back in 2002. The intake, mean and intake distribution of sodium nitrite have been calculated from 1998 to 2006 with data from the Danish dietary survey conducted in 2000–02 on Danes from four to 75 years of age. The amounts used by industry have been relatively stable through the whole period with levels varying between 6 and 20 mg sodium nitrite kg^?1 with sausages, meat for open sandwiches and salami-type sausages being the greatest contributors. The mean intake of sodium nitrate was around 1 mg day^?1, which is very low compared with the total intake of 61 mg day^?1. The mean intake of sodium nitrite was 0.017 and 0.014, 0.009 and 0.008, and 0.007 and 0.003 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for men and women in the age groups 4–5, 6–14 and 15–75 years, respectively, which was much lower than the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0.09 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1. The 99th percentile for the group of 4-year-olds was 0.107 and 0.123 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for boys and girls, respectively, and the 95th percentile was 0.057 and 0.073 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for boys and girls, respectively, highest for the girls. With fewer than 100 boys and girls in the 4–5-year age group, only very few persons were responsible for the high intake. The conversion of nitrate to nitrite in the saliva and the degradation of nitrite during production and storage must also be considered when evaluating the intake of nitrite.     

Determination of furan levels in commercial samples of baby food from Brazil and preliminary risk assessment

Commercial baby food samples available on the Brazilian market (n = 31) were analysed for furan content using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method preceded by solid-phase microextraction. A limit of detection of 0.7 µg kg^?1, a limit of quantitation of 2.4 µg kg^?1, mean recoveries varying from 80% to 107%, and coefficients of variation ranging from 5.6% to 9.4% for repeatability and from 7.4% to 12.4% for within-laboratory reproducibility were obtained during an in-house validation. The levels of furan found in the samples were from not detected to 95.5 µg kg^?1. Samples containing vegetables and meat showed higher furan levels as compared with those containing only fruits. An exposure assessment showed furan intakes up to 2.4 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (99th percentile) for babies fed exclusively with commercial baby foods. Margins of exposure obtained from intakes estimated in this work indicated a potential public health concern.     

Estimated intake of intense sweeteners from non-alcoholic beverages in Denmark, 2005

In 2005 International Standards Organization. ISO 17025. 2005. General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories, Copenhagen: Danish Standard [Google Scholar], 76 out of 177 analysed samples of non-alcoholic beverages were found to contain the intense sweeteners cyclamate, acesulfame-K, aspartame, and saccharin. The content of cyclamate did not exceed the now permitted maximum level in the European Union of 250 mg l^?1 in soft drinks. The estimated intake of the sweeteners was calculated using the Danish Dietary Survey based on 3098 persons aged 1–80 years. The estimated intake with 90th percentiles of 0.7, 0.8 and 0.2 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for acesulfame-K, aspartame, and saccharin, respectively, was much lower than the acceptable daily intake values of 15, 40, 7, and 2.5 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for acesulfame-K, aspartame, and saccharin, respectively, and on the same level as in the similar investigation from 1999. In contrast to the 1999 investigation, the 90th percentile of the estimated cyclamate intake in 1–3 year olds with 3.7 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 was in 2005 lower than the acceptable daily intake of 7 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1. However, the 99th percentile for 1–3 year olds with 7.4 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 still exceeded the acceptable daily intake slightly. The 90th percentile for the whole population with 0.9 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 was halved compared with 1999. The reduction in the European Union of the maximum permitted level for cyclamate from 400 to 250 mg l^?1 has brought the intake of cyclamate in small children down to well below the acceptable daily intake value.     

Content of selenium, total and inorganic arsenic and bioaccessibility of arsenic in children diets of Mexico

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the intake of selenium, total and inorganic arsenic and the bioaccessibility of arsenic in diets of Mexican schoolchildren using an in vitro method. RESULTS: Total and inorganic arsenic concentrations in the diets ranged from 0.05 to 1.15 mg kg^?1 dry weight (DW) and from 0.023 to 0.088 mg kg^?1 DW respectively, while selenium levels were between 0.08 and 0.20 mg kg^?1 DW. Daily intake of total and inorganic arsenic ranged from 0.15 to 10.49 µg day^?1 kg^?1 body weight (BW) and from 0.06 to 1.11 µg day^?1 kg^?1 BW respectively, while that of selenium varied from 0.29 to 2.63 µg day^?1 kg^?1 BW. Bioaccessibility of total and inorganic arsenic ranged from 4 to 97% (mean 44 ± 21.5%) and from 33 to 97% (mean 71 ± 22.5%) respectively. CONCLUSION: Inorganic arsenic levels in the diets were low. Therefore there appears to be a low risk of adverse effects resulting from excess inorganic arsenic intake from these diets. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Assessment of the dietary intake of propylene glycol in the Korean population

An improved method for the analysis of propylene glycol (PG) in foods using a gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (GC-FID), with confirmation by GC-MS, was validated by measuring several analytical parameters. The PG concentrations in 1073 products available in Korean markets were determined. PG was detected in 74.1% of the samples, in a concentration range from the limit of detection (n.d., 0.39 μg ml^?1) to 12,819.9 mg kg^?1. The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2011–2013 reported the mean intake levels of PG from all sources by the general population and consumers were 26.3 mg day^?1 (0.52 mg kg^?1 day^?1) and 34.3 mg day^?1 (0.67 mg kg^?1 day^?1), respectively. The 95th percentile intake levels of the general population and consumers were 123.6 mg day^?1 (2.39 mg kg^?1 day^?1) and 146.3 mg day^?1 (2.86 mg kg^?1 day^?1), respectively. In all groups of the general population, breads were the main contributors to the total PG intake. These reports provide a current perspective on the daily intake of PG in the Korean population.     

Consumer exposure to phthalates from paper packaging: an integrated approach

This paper presents an integrated approach to estimate the exposure of the Portuguese population to phthalates as a contaminant originating from paperboard packaging. The approach combined data of migrant concentration in the foods resulting from a stochastic simulation with consumption data of food packaged in paperboard. The results from the exposure model were validated with experimental values actually found in the food. A short surveillance exercise was conducted with samples collection from market shelves to identify and quantify the phthalates present in both the packages and the food. The distribution of values for the di-butyl phthalate concentration in the packages was used as the input of the initial concentration in the Weibull model to estimate the concentration of this phthalate in the foods. This distribution of occurrence data was then combined with the packaging usage data in a probabilistic simulation with a Monte Carlo sampling method. Exposure values ranged between zero and 8.95 µg day^?1 kg_bw, a value close to the tolerable daily intake established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)–10 µg day^?1 kg_bw. However, the 97.5th percentile and the average were 1.82 and 0.44 day^?1 kg_bw, respectively, indicating that further refinement of the estimates is not necessary. Other phthalates were also detected in the packaging samples: di-isobutyl phthalate and di-ethylhexyl phthalate. The latter was present in all packaging samples collected and was detected in a few food samples at values requiring further investigation.     

Estimated dietary intake of nitrite and nitrate in Swedish children

This study examines the intake of nitrate and nitrite in Swedish children. Daily intake estimates were based on a nationwide food consumption survey (4-day food diary) and nitrite/nitrate content in various foodstuffs. The mean intake of nitrite from cured meat among 2259 children studied was 0.013, 0.010 and 0.007?mg?kg^?1?body?weight?day^?1 in age groups 4, 8–9 and 11–12 years, respectively. Among these age groups, three individuals (0.1% of the studied children) exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0.07?mg?nitrite?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1. The mean intake of nitrate from vegetables, fruit, cured meat and water was 0.84, 0.68 and 0.45?mg?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1 for children aged 4, 8–9 and 11–12 years, respectively. No individual exceeded the ADI of 3.7?mg?nitrate?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1. However, when the total nitrite intake was estimated, including an estimated 5% endogenous conversion of nitrate to nitrite, approximately 12% of the 4-year-old children exceeded the nitrite ADI. Thus, the intake of nitrite in Swedish children may be a concern for young age groups when endogenous nitrite conversion is included in the intake estimates.     

Dietary intake assessment of caramel colours and their processing by-products 4-methylimidazole and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxy-butylimidazole for the Chinese population

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to assess the dietary intake of caramel colours and their by-products 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) for the Chinese population. Based on the typical and maximum reported use levels of caramel colours in 15 food categories, the dietary intakes of combined and single-class caramel colours of Classes I, III and IV were estimated with the food consumption data from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey. Using the mean values of 4-MEI and THI contents in Class III and Class IV Caramel colour samples, the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colours were derived. The results showed that the combined and individual average dietary caramel colour intakes for the Chinese population of different age groups were estimated to be 232–60.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for combined caramels, 5.9–29.2 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class I, 7.7–29.6 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class III, 21.2–54.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class IV, which were far below the group acceptable daily intake (ADI) and respective ADIs. The combined intake of 4-MEI from Class III and IV caramel colours was estimated to be 3.8–5.2 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average, and 12.9–27.1 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The anticipated exposure to THI from Class III caramel colours was estimated to be 0.1–0.3 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average and 0.5–1.7 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th–97.5th percentile for the general population. The dietary caramel colours intakes and the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colour for the Chinese population were considered to be of low health concern based on the present toxicological data. Soy sauce, vinegar and compound seasonings were found to be the main contributors to the dietary intake of caramel colours.     

Dietary acrylamide exposure among Finnish adults and children: the potential effect of reduction measures

A deterministic exposure assessment using the Nusser method that adjusts for within-subject variation and for nuisance effects among Finnish children and adults was carried out. The food consumption data covered 2038 adults (25–74 years old) and 1514 children of 1, 3 and 6 years of age, with the data on foods’ acrylamide content obtained from published Finnish studies. We found that acrylamide exposure was highest among the 3-year-old children (median?=?1.01?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?1.95?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1) and lowest among 65–74-year-old women (median?=?0.31?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?0.69?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1). Among adults, the most important source of acrylamide exposure was coffee, followed by casseroles rich in starch, then rye bread. Among children, the most important sources were casseroles rich in starch and then biscuits and, finally, chips and other fried potatoes. Replacing lightly roasted coffee with dark-roasted, swapping sweet wheat buns for biscuits, and decreasing the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles and rye bread by 50% would result in a 50% decrease in acrylamide exposure in adults. Among children, substituting boiled potatoes for chips and other friend potatoes and replacing biscuits with sweet wheat buns while lowering the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles by 50% would lead to acrylamide exposure that is only half of the original exposure. In conclusions, dietary modifications could have a large impact in decreasing acrylamide exposure.     

Probabilistic acute dietary exposure assessment of the Chinese population to cypermethrin residues

A probabilistic estimation of dietary exposure to cypermethrin residues for the Chinese population was performed. Cypermethrin residue data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring program for 2001–2006, encompassing 14,096 samples from 36 commodities with a detection rate of 10.4%. Food consumption data were gathered from the national nutrition and health survey conducted in 2002, comprising 65,915 consumers aged 2–100 years and 3701 children of 2–6 years old. The whole country was roughly divided into six regions and the ranges of the median and of P99.9 exposure estimated for these regions were 0.018–0.026 and 3.131–7.095?µg?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, respectively. Pak-choi and Chinese cabbage contributed 33.9 and 13.2%, respectively, to the cypermethrin intake for the general population, while pak-choi and citrus covered 30.7 and 22.5% of the total intake for children, respectively. The exposure of the rural population was higher than urban populations. Rural areas mainly located in the plains of central China had among the highest exposure of the six regions, accounting for 17.7% of the ARfD at P99.9, while the 99.99th percentile of exposure for children, especially rural children, far exceeded the ARfD, which is a cause for concern.     

Survey of furan in heat processed foods by headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and estimated adult exposure

Furan is a suspected human carcinogen that is formed in some processed foods at low ng per g levels. Recent improvements in analytical methodology and scientific instrumentation have made it possible to accurately measure the amount of furan in a wide variety of foods. Results from analysis of more than 300 processed foods are presented. Furan was found at levels ranging from non-detectable (LOD, 0.2–0.9 ng g^?1) to over 100 ng g^?1. Exposure estimates for several adult food types were calculated, with brewed coffee being the major source of furan in the adult diet (0.15 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1). Estimates of mean exposure to furan for different subpopulations were calculated. For consumers 2 years and older, the intake is estimated to be about 0.2 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1.     

Estimate of intake of benzoic acid in the Belgian adult population

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate average daily benzoic acid intake for Belgian adults. Food consumption data were retrieved from the national food-consumption survey. As a first step, individual food-consumption data were multiplied with the maximum permitted use levels for benzoic acid per food group (Tier 2). As a second step, a label survey to identify the foods where benzoic acid is effectively used as an additive and a literature review of the possible occurrence of benzoic acid as a natural substance were performed. With this information, a refined list of foods was drafted for the quantification of benzoic acid, which was performed by a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method, optimized and validated for this purpose. Individual food-consumption data were then multiplied with the actual average concentrations of benzoic acid per food group (Tier 3). Usual intakes were calculated using the Nusser method. The mean benzoic acid intake was 1.58 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (Tier 2) and 1.25 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (Tier 3). In Tier 2, men exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 5 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 at the 99th percentile. The greatest contributors to the benzoic acid intake were soft drinks. Benzoic acid as a natural substance represents only a small percentage of the total intake. The results show that actual benzoic acid intake is very likely to be below the ADI. However, there is a need to collect national food-consumption data for children as they might be more vulnerable to an excessive intake.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls of the population in the Region of Valencia (Spain)

Dietary exposure of the Valencia Region population to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and PCBs was assessed in the Region of Valencia in 2010–2011. A total of 7700 food samples were collected. Occurrence data were combined with consumption data to estimate dietary exposure in adults (>15 years of age) and young people (6–15 years of age). The estimated intake was calculated by a probabilistic approach. Average intake levels (upper-bound scenario) were 1.58 and 2.76 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ) kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for adults and young people, respectively. These average intakes are within range of the tolerable daily intake of 1–4 pg WHO-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 recommended by WHO, and slightly above the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 14 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw week^?1 and the Provisional tolerable monthly intake of 70 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw month^?1 set by the Scientific Committee on Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food, respectively. These results show that the contamination levels in food and therefore the exposure of the general population to PCDD/Fs and PCBs have declined in this region and therefore show the efficiency of the European risk-management measures. In terms of risk characterisation, the results showed that, under the upper-bound scenario, 22% of the adult and 58% of the young people population could exceed the TWI.     

Risk assessment for furan contamination through the food chain in Belgian children

Young, old, pregnant and immuno-compromised persons are of great concern for risk assessors as they represent the sub-populations most at risk. The present paper focuses on risk assessment linked to furan exposure in children. Only the Belgian population was considered because individual contamination and consumption data that are required for accurate risk assessment were available for Belgian children only. Two risk assessment approaches, the so-called deterministic and probabilistic, were applied and the results were compared for the estimation of daily intake. A significant difference between the average Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) was underlined between the deterministic (419?ng?kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1) and the probabilistic (583?ng?kg^?1 bw day^?1) approaches, which results from the mathematical treatment of the null consumption and contamination data. The risk was characterised by two ways: (1) the classical approach by comparison of the EDI to a reference dose (RfD_chronic-oral) and (2) the most recent approach, namely the Margin of Exposure (MoE) approach. Both reached similar conclusions: the risk level is not of a major concern, but is neither negligible. In the first approach, only 2.7 or 6.6% (respectively in the deterministic and in the probabilistic way) of the studied population presented an EDI above the RfD_chronic-oral. In the second approach, the percentage of children displaying a MoE above 10,000 and below 100 is 3–0% and 20–0.01% in the deterministic and probabilistic modes, respectively. In addition, children were compared to adults and significant differences between the contamination patterns were highlighted. While major contamination was linked to coffee consumption in adults (55%), no item predominantly contributed to the contamination in children. The most important were soups (19%), dairy products (17%), pasta and rice (11%), fruit and potatoes (9% each).