Influence of date palm fibre and graphite filler on mechanical and wear characteristics of epoxy composites

In this article, mechanical and tribological performance of the epoxy composites based on graphite filler and/or date palm fibre are comprehensively discussed. The influence of the date palm fibre and/or graphite filler on the microstructure of the materials, tensile fracture samples, and worn surface of tribological samples are examined using scanning electron microscopy. The results revealed that interfacial adhesion of the date palm fibre with the epoxy is the key of the mechanical and tribological performance of natural fibre/polymer composites. The addition of the graphite is highly recommended for the natural fibre/polymer composites which can assist to reduce the friction which in turn enhances the wear characteristics of the polymer composites; however, the high content of the graphite deteriorates the mechanical properties.     

Jute/polypropylene composites I. Effect of matrix modification

Natural fibre-reinforced polymers can exhibit very different mechanical performances and environmental aging resistances depending on their interphase properties, but most studies have been focused on fibre surface treatment. Here, investigations of the effect of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAHgPP) coupling agents on the properties of jute fibre/polypropylene (PP) composites have been considered with two kinds of matrices (PP1 and PP2). Both mechanical behaviour of random short fibre composites and micro-mechanical properties of single fibre model composites were examined. Taking into account interfacial properties, a modified rule of mixture (ROM) theory is formulated which fits well to the experimental results. The addition of 2 wt% MAHgPP to polypropylene matrices can significantly improve the adhesion strength with jute fibres and in turn the mechanical properties of composites. We found that the intrinsic tensile properties of jute fibre are proportional to the fibre’s cross-sectional area, which is associated with its perfect circle shape, suggesting the jute fibre’s special statistical tensile properties. We also characterised the hydrophilic character of natural fibres and, moreover, humidity environmental aging effects. The theoretical results are found to coincide fairly well with the experimental data and the major reason of composite tensile strength increase in humidity aging conditions can be attributed to both improved polymer–matrix and interfacial adhesion strength.     

Surface oxidation of carbon fibre on tribological properties of PEEK composites

Abstract

In this work, ozone modification method and air oxidation were used for the surface treatment of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) based carbon fibre. The surface characteristics of carbon fibres were characterised by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The interfacial properties of carbon fibre reinforced PEEK (CF/PEEK) composites were investigated by means of the single fibre pull-out tests. As a result, it was found that IFSS values of the composites with ozone treated carbon fibre are increased by 60% compared with that without treatment. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results show that ozone treatment increases the amount of carboxyl groups on carbon fibre surface, thus the interfacial adhesion between carbon fibre and PEEK matrix is effectively promoted. The effect of surface treatment of carbon fibres on the tribological properties of CF/PEEK composites was comparatively investigated. Experimental results revealed that surface treatment can effectively improve the interfacial adhesion between carbon fibre and PEEK matrix. Thus the wear resistance was significantly improved.     

Effects of fabric parameters on the tensile behaviour of sustainable cementitious composites

The mechanical behaviour of fabric-reinforced composites can be affected by several parameters, such as the properties of fabrics and matrix, the fibre content, the bond interphase and the anchorage ability of fabrics. In this study, the effects of the fibre type, the fabric geometry, the physical and mechanical properties of fabrics and the volume fraction of fibres on the tensile stress–strain response and crack propagation of cementitious composites reinforced with natural fabrics were studied. To further examine the properties of the fibres, mineral fibres (glass) were also used to study the tensile behaviour of glass fabric-reinforced composites and contrast the results with those obtained for the natural fabric-reinforced composites. Composite samples were manufactured by the hand lay-up moulding technique using one, two and three layers of flax and sisal fabric strips and a natural hydraulic lime (NHL) grouting mix. Considering fabric geometry and physical properties such as the mass per unit area and the linear density, the flax fabric provided better anchorage development than the sisal and glass fabrics in the cement-based composites. The fabric geometry and the volume fraction of fibres were the parameters that had the greatest effects on the tensile behaviour of these composite systems.     

The influence of fibre surface properties on the mode of failure in carbon-fibre/epoxy composites

A series of mechanical tests have been performed on composites consisting of high-strength carbon fibres in an amine-cured epoxy resin. A comparison has been made between composites containing untreated, commercially treated (electrochemically), and plasma treated fibres. While both treatments improve interfacial adhesion, the manner in which the composite fails is totally different. In composites that contain electrochemically treated fibres failure is, in most cases, matrix dominated, whereas interfacial failure always occurs in samples made from plasma-treated fibres. This behaviour can be explained in terms of the nature of the fibre surface after each type of treatment.     

Development of sizing-free multi-functional carbon fibre nanocomposites

High quality multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) grown at high density using a low temperature growth method are used as an alternative material to polymer sizing and is utilised in a series of epoxy composites reinforced with carbon fibres to provide improved physical and electrical properties. We report improvements for sizing-sensitive mechanical and physical properties, such as the interfacial adhesion, shear properties and handling of the fibres, whilst retaining resin-infusion capability. Following fibre volume fraction normalisation, the carbon nanotube-modified carbon fibre composite offers improvements of 146% increase in Young’s modulus; 20% increase in ultimate shear stress; 74% increase in shear chord modulus and an 83% improvement in the initial fracture toughness. The addition of CNTs imparts electrical functionalisation to the composite, enhancements in the surface direction are 400%, demonstrating a suitable route to sizing-free composites with enhanced mechanical and electrical functionality.     

The manufacture and mechanical testing of thermosetting natural fibre composites

High volume fraction hemp and flax fibre composites were manufactured using low viscosity epoxy and phenolic resins. Using 80% volume fraction of flax fibres in epoxy resin, composites with a mean stiffness of 26 GPa and a mean strength of 378 MPa were produced. By reducing processing damage of the plant fibres mechanical properties could be increased by 40%. Strips of retted fibre tissue were found to be just as effective for reinforcement as fibre bundles and individual fibres. Phenolic resin and decorticated flax fibres produced very poor composites. Using 40% volume fraction of fibres the mean stiffness was 3.7 GPa and the mean strength was 27 MPa. Two fibre pre-treatments were devised to improve adhesion with resins. The first, 6 M urea was used only in natural fibre-epoxy composites where it increased the stiffness but not the strength. The second pre-treatment was a 50% PVA solution, which was cured prior to the addition of space filling resin. The PVA treatment improved the stiffness and strength of both natural fibre-epoxy composites and natural fibre-phenolic composites.     

Extraction and preparation of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites

Natural plant fibre composites have been developed for the production of a variety of industrial products, with benefits including biodegradability and environmental protection. Bamboo fibre materials have attracted broad attention as reinforcement polymer composites due to their environmental sustainability, mechanical properties, and recyclability, and they can be compared with glass fibres. This review classifies and describes the various procedures that have been developed to extract fibres from raw bamboo culm. There are three main types of procedures: mechanical, chemical and combined mechanical and chemical extraction. Composite preparation from extracted bamboo fibres and various thermal analysis methods are also classified and analysed. Many parameters affect the mechanical properties and composite characteristics of bamboo fibres and bamboo composites, including fibre extraction methods, fibre length, fibre size, resin application, temperature, moisture content and composite preparation techniques. Mechanical extraction methods are more eco-friendly than chemical methods, and steam explosion and chemical methods significantly affect the microstructure of bamboo fibres. The development of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites and interfacial adhesion fabrication techniques must consider the type of matrix, the microstructure of bamboo and fibre extraction methods.     

3D-Quantification of the distribution of continuous fibres in unidirectionally reinforced composites

Synchrotron microtomography is carried out for continuous C-fibre reinforced aluminium and a continuous C-reinforced polymer. The local volume fraction as well as the orientation distribution of the reinforcement are analysed three dimensionally for both composites using self-developed calculation methods. Representative elements for the analysis of the local volume fraction are determined by using two-point probability functions. The results show that regions with smaller volume fractions tend to form channels along the fibre bundles for both composites. Channels of high volume fractions, representing touching fibres (local volume fraction >55 vol%), are identified for the polymer matrix composite. The regions with high volume fraction >50 vol% tend to form clusters in the case of the metal matrix composite. The orientation of the reinforcement is followed throughout the volume of both composites. The results show preferential orientations within each bundle of the fibre reinforced metal. The orientation of the reinforcement is more homogeneous in the fibre reinforced polymer and the largest misorientations are found within the channels separating fibre bundles. The characterisation methods developed in this work can be used to evaluate quality criteria adopted in the stage of development of the composites.     

The matrix fatigue behaviour of fibre composites subjected to repeated tensile loads

In a fibre/metal matrix composite the mechanical properties of the matrix itself are changed by the presence of the reinforcing fibres. This changed behaviour of the metal is referred to asin situ behaviour, and a phenomenological model is developed to evaluate thein situ plastic stress-strain properties of a metallic matrix containing fibres, from a study of the properties of the composite. The model is based upon the idealised behaviour of the two components of the system. The application of the model to B/Al alloy composites shows that the plastic stress-strain behaviour of the matrix containing fibres varies strongly with the fibre volume content, and also that the matrixin situ cyclic stress-strain behaviour can be approximately described by a power law of the type: where the strength coefficient and the exponent increase with the fibre volume fraction. It also predicts that in the steady state fatigue behaviour of the composites, the fraction of load amplitude carried by the fibres decreases with increasing applied stress amplitude, and is also dependent on the fibre volume fraction. The effect of the applied stress on the damping capacity is established through expressions derived from the basic ideas involved in the model.     

The bonding mechanism of aramid fibres to epoxy matrices

Despite considerable attempts to increase aramid-epoxy adhesion, to date, the adhesion levels achieved between aramid fibres and epoxy matrices are less than optimum for some applications. A combination of the aramid fibres' morphology, physical and chemical properties, and the interfacial mechanical stresses is responsible for the lack of success in increasing aramid-epoxy adhesion level. A key to improving the aramid-epoxy adhesion is a basic understanding of the interfacial mechanisms by which fibre and matrix interact. There is a considerable number of publications on aramid fibres and their composites. This paper reviews some of the literature relevant to aramid-epoxy bonding mechanisms.     

The potential of using date palm fibres as reinforcement for polymeric composites

Interfacial adhesion of natural fibres as reinforcement for fibre polymeric composites is the key parameter in designing composites. In the current study, interfacial adhesion of date palm fibre with epoxy matrix is experimentally investigated using single fibre pull out technique. The influence of NaOH treatment concentrations (0–9%), fibre embedded length and fibre diameter on the interfacial adhesion property was considered in this study. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the surface morphology and damage feature on the fibre and bonding area before and after conducting the experiments. The results revealed that 6% concentration of NaOH is the optimum solution for treating the date palm fibre to maintain high interfacial adhesion and strength with epoxy matrix. The embedded length of the fibre controlled the interfacial adhesion property, where 10 mm embedded length was the optimum fibre length.     

Discrete element modelling of unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymers under transverse tension

The mechanical behaviour of unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymer composites subjected to transverse tension was studied using a two dimensional discrete element method. The Representative Volume Element (RVE) of the composite was idealised as a polymer matrix reinforced with randomly distributed parallel fibres. The matrix and fibres were constructed using disc particles bonded together using parallel bonds, while the fibre/matrix interfaces were represented by a displacement-softening model. The prevailing damage mechanisms observed from the model were interfacial debonding and matrix plastic deformation. Numerical simulations have shown that the magnitude of stress is significantly higher at the interfaces, especially in the areas with high fibre densities. Interface fracture energy, stiffness and strength all played important roles in the overall mechanical performance of the composite. It was also observed that tension cracks normally began with interfacial debonding. The merge of the interfacial and matrix micro-cracks resulted in the final catastrophic fracture.     

Fracture behaviour of SiC fibre-reinforced nitrogen glass matrix composites

Both Nicalon and Hi-Nicalon SiC fibre-reinforced nitrogen glass composites were prepared by slurry infiltration and hot-pressing, and the interfacial features, fracture behaviour and mechanical properties of these composites were investigated. It was found that the interfacial characteristics were mainly dictated by the thermal expansion properties of the matrix and the type of SiC fibre. Yttrium sialon glass has a higher thermal expansion coefficient than SiC fibres, so a radial compressive stress on the fibre due to thermal mismatch caused a larger interfacial frictional stress between fibre and matrix. As a result, the composite failed in a brittle manner with no effective strengthening and toughening. Strong reaction between the Hi-Nicalon SiC fibre and matrix also resulted in relatively poor performance of these composites. In contrast, lithium sialon glass provided a matrix for these composites with significantly improved mechanical properties.     

Hybrid polymeric composites reinforced with sisal fibres and silica microparticles

Polymeric composites reinforced with natural fibres have been developed in recent years, showing significant potential for various engineering applications due to their intrinsic sustainability, low cost, low weight and mechanical strength. The interfacial adhesion between natural fibres and polymeric matrices is critical to the composite performance. In order to improve the physical adhesion of polymeric composites, micro and nanoparticles have been added to synthetic fibres in the past. This work investigates the effect of silica microparticles, volume fraction of sisal and maleic anhydride on the mechanical properties of polymeric composites reinforced with unidirectional sisal natural fibres. A full factorial design (2²3¹) was carried out to identify the effect of these factors on the responses: bulk density, apparent density, apparent porosity, water absorption, mechanical strength and modulus of elasticity. A microstructure analyses was conducted to verify the interface condition. The volume fraction of fibres, silica addition, and the interaction between silica particles and maleic anhydride additions exhibited significant effects on the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the composites. The microsilica addition did not affect significantly the flexural strength; while the interaction between fraction of fibres, silica particles and maleic anhydride addition played a major role not only on the flexural strength, but also on the flexural modulus. The volume fraction of sisal fibres exhibited significant effects on the bulk density, apparent density, apparent porosity and water absorption of the composites.     

Hybrid polymeric composites reinforced with sisal fibres and silica microparticles

Polymeric composites reinforced with natural fibres have been developed in recent years, showing significant potential for various engineering applications due to their intrinsic sustainability, low cost, low weight and mechanical strength. The interfacial adhesion between natural fibres and polymeric matrices is critical to the composite performance. In order to improve the physical adhesion of polymeric composites, micro and nanoparticles have been added to synthetic fibres in the past. This work investigates the effect of silica microparticles, volume fraction of sisal and maleic anhydride on the mechanical properties of polymeric composites reinforced with unidirectional sisal natural fibres. A full factorial design (2²3¹) was carried out to identify the effect of these factors on the responses: bulk density, apparent density, apparent porosity, water absorption, mechanical strength and modulus of elasticity. A microstructure analyses was conducted to verify the interface condition. The volume fraction of fibres, silica addition, and the interaction between silica particles and maleic anhydride additions exhibited significant effects on the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the composites. The microsilica addition did not affect significantly the flexural strength; while the interaction between fraction of fibres, silica particles and maleic anhydride addition played a major role not only on the flexural strength, but also on the flexural modulus. The volume fraction of sisal fibres exhibited significant effects on the bulk density, apparent density, apparent porosity and water absorption of the composites.     

Shear strength and fracture toughness of carbon fibre/epoxy interface: effect of surface treatment

Textile-reinforced composites have become increasingly attractive as protection materials for various applications, including sports. In such applications it is crucial to maintain both strong adhesion at fibre–matrix interface and high interfacial fracture toughness, which influence mechanical performance of composites as well as their energy-absorption capacity. Surface treatment of reinforcing fibres has been widely used to achieve satisfactory fibre–matrix adhesion. However, most studies till date focused on the overall composite performance rather than on the interface properties of a single fibre/epoxy system. In this study, carbon fibres were treated by mixed acids for different durations, and resulting adhesion strength at the interface between them and epoxy resin as well as their tensile strength were measured in a microbond and microtensile tests, respectively. The interfacial fracture toughness was also analysed. The results show that after an optimum 15–30 min surface treatment, both interfacial shear strength and fracture toughness of the interface were improved alongside with an increased tensile strength of single fibre. However, a prolonged surface treatment resulted in a reduction of both fibre tensile strength and fracture toughness of the interface due to induced surface damage.     

Effect of chain structure on the properties of Glass fibre/polyethylene composites

Three types of polyethylenes (low density: LDPE, medium density: MDPE, and high density: HDPE) were used to investigate the effect of chain branching on the dispersion and adhesion in Glass fibre reinforced polymer composites. The interaction between the polyethylene matrix and the Glass fibres was investigated in terms of differences in mechanical behaviour, morphological characteristics, rheological and thermal properties between the three polymer composites systems. Addition of Glass fibres enhanced the mechanical properties for all systems. The degree of enhancement, however, depended on the branching and crystallinity of each polymer. The long chain branching (LCB) in LDPE resulted in higher increases both in the Elastic (Young’s) modulus in the solid state and in the Storage modulus in the melt. The higher crystallinity of HDPE was responsible for higher increase in tensile strength and less fibre pull-out upon addition of Glass fibres. Rheological results also confirm the same observation for LCB. The addition of Glass fibres also resulted in improved thermal stability of the various polyethylene samples.     

A new data reduction scheme for the fragmentation testing of polymer composites

A new reduction scheme of fragmentation data for the derivation of interfacial mechanical properties in polymer composites is proposed. The scheme is based on a theoretical model that accounts for elastic load transfer and friction at the interface, as well as for the statistical nature of fibre strength. Interface mechanical behaviour is characterized by two independent parameters, namely the interface bond strength and interface frictional resistance. Derived values of the two interface properties are computed, such that they yield the best possible agreement between experimental and theoretical results for the evolution of fibre fragment aspect ratio and debonding ratio as a function of applied strain. Results are reported for carbon fibres embedded in an epoxy matrix, with different levels of fibre surface treatment.     

Dry sliding wear of an Al2O3 continuous fibre reinforced Al-Cu alloy against steel counterface

The tribological properties of Al₂O₃ continuous fibre reinforced Al-4.43 wt %Cu alloy composites with a fibres' volume fraction of about 0.55 were measured for five types of fibre orientations under a dry sliding contact with a bearing steel. Fibres were in a plain perpendicular to wear surface and parallel to sliding direction, and had the angles 0°, 45°, 90°, or 135° with respect to the direction of motion of the counterface; or were anti-parallel the sliding direction. The results show obvious dependence of wear characteristics on fibres orientation: for the 45°, 90°, and 135° orientations, the larger the fibres' angle, the lower the volume loss; while the 0° orientation resulted in a higher steady-state wear rate than those of the 45°, 90°, and 135°, orientations, except that the anti-parallel orientation caused the highest volume loss at all sliding distances. The wear mechanism was inferred as a oxidation-microgrooving process through the analyses of worn surface and subsurface with the aid of optical microscope and scanning electron microscope. Also it was found that the fibres' broken and subsurface deformation had played an important role in causing wear anisotropy.