The effects of animated pedagogical agents in an English-as-a-foreign-language learning environment

Animated pedagogical agents (APAs) have frequently been used as a powerful addition to learning environments, since APAs have been known to facilitate learning. APAs can present various features, such as voice, movements, gestures and pointing, and researchers have sought to verify specifically which features of agents effectively contribute to learning. Previous studies have studied these features by comparing different degrees of agent embodiment in the evaluation of the image effect (i.e., students learn more when learning systems have visual APAs), the embodied agent effect (i.e., fully embodied agents that deliver instruction aurally and use gestures to improve learning outcomes in text-only learning systems), the modality effect (i.e., oral instruction contributes to the learning process), and the expressiveness effect (i.e., fully embodied agents promote more effective learning than static ones). Some of these studies have investigated the image, embodied agent and modality effects in the same learning environment, but they were not the same studies that investigated the expressiveness effect. The expressiveness effect allows us to separate the movements of the agent from its other features, such as the agent's image, so investigating this effect is as important as investigating the other effects. We are not aware of any studies that investigated all of these four effects within the same learning system, nor that evaluated any of these effects in language learning environments. Accordingly, this paper describes the design, implementation, and analysis of an APA designed to evaluate the abovementioned effects. The APA was integrated into a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) system to teach English as a foreign language to Brazilian students. A total of 72 Brazilian undergraduate students were divided into four groups, each of which used a different version of the APA in the same CALL system: no agent, a voice-only agent, a static agent, or a fully embodied agent. We compared students’ gain scores (i.e., difference between pre- and posttest scores) across groups to evaluate each of the four effects. Though the outcomes of our study supported the presence of the embodied agent and modality effects, we were not able to demonstrate the image or expressiveness effects in the experiment. Our results indicate that the voice of the agent might contribute more positively to learning than movements, gestures and pointing.     

Multimedia,hypermedia, and hypertext: Motivation considered and reconsidered

Computer-based instruction (CBI) is becoming increasingly popular in the classroom, particularly because the latest technological advancements allow for visually rich and interactive environments. While the inherent nature of CBIs is often thought to engage learners, research examining the role of motivation in learning with these environments has resulted in mixed findings. These findings are further complicated by unique design characteristics of distinct CBIs. This literature review synthesizes research that has examined the role of theoretically-grounded constructs of motivation in the context of three popular CBIs, multimedia, hypermedia, and hypertext. Specifically, this literature review considered empirical studies that examined the effect of these CBIs on motivation, in addition to the effect of motivation on learning outcomes and the learning process within the context of these environments. The literature review concludes with a theoretical consideration of previous research and a discussion of a framework for future directions.     

Analysis of E-learning innovation and core capability using a hypercube model

New information and communication technologies and emerging learning models have triggered a new wave of educational innovation-electronic learning (E-learning). This study utilizes a hypercube innovation model to analyze the differences in technology and learning models (instruction model/environment) used in traditional classroom learning versus E-learning environments. The results show that the innovation from traditional classroom learning to E-learning is radical for both the learner and instructor, leading to drastic changes in the technology and learning model. For educational institutions, the technology is a fundamental change, while the learning model is reinforced. From the dynamic capability perspectives, a set of core capabilities needed for successfully exploiting E-learning is identified. These results provide insight for learners, instructors and educational institutions for enhancing their understanding of E-learning innovation, and provide guidelines to help E-learning stakeholders adapt from the traditional classroom to E-learning environments.     

Lifelike Pedagogical Agents for Mixed-initiative Problem Solving in Constructivist Learning Environments

Mixed-initiative problem solving lies at the heart of knowledge- based learning environments. While learners are actively engaged in problem-solving activities, learning environments should monitor their progress and provide them with feedback in a manner that contributes to achieving the twin goals of learning effectiveness and learning efficiency. Mixed-initiative interactions are particularly critical for constructivist learning environments in which learners participate in active problem solving. We have recently begun to see the emergence of believable agents with lifelike qualities. Featured prominently in constructivist learning environments, lifelike pedagogical agents could couple key feedback functionalities with a strong visual presence by observing learners' progress and providing them with visually contextualized advice during mixed-initiative problem solving. For the past three years, we have been engaged in a large-scale research program on lifelike pedagogical agents and their role in constructivist learning environments. In the resulting computational framework, lifelike pedagogical agents are specified by(1) a behavior space containing animated and vocal behaviors,(2) a design-centered context model that maintains constructivist problem representations, multimodal advisory contexts, and evolving problem-solving tasks, and(3) a behavior sequencing engine that in realtime dynamically selects and assembles agents' actions to create pedagogically effective, lifelike behaviors.To empirically investigate this framework, it has been instantiated in a full-scale implementation of a lifelike pedagogical agent for Design-A-Plant, a learning environment developed for the domain of botanical anatomy and physiology for middle school students. Experience with focus group studies conducted with middle school students interacting with the implemented agent suggests that lifelike pedagogical agents hold much promise for mixed-initiative learning.     

Designing interactive learning environments

Abstract As computers become more prominent in classroom instruction their modes of use are extending, for example as surrogate teachers in tutoring or as curriculum enrichment in simulation applications where students are more investigative in their learning methods. However, within the classroom such programs often have effects and are used in ways that were not always anticipated by their designers. This argues for computer assisted learning (CAL) environments in which the software is interactive but is able to adapt to different styles of learning and teaching. This paper argues for and describes the design principles of such environments, taking as illustration an application in the fraction domain. Following its implementation, initial evaluation data taken from school-children showed marked performance improvements, and indicated how design features of the system ( FRACTIONLAB ) contributed to their understanding.     

Self-directed learning readiness, Internet self-efficacy and preferences towards constructivist Internet-based learning environments among higher-aged adults

This article examines several research questions to establish a theory model for explaining factors that influence adult learners' preferences for constructivist Internet-based learning environments (CILE). Data were gathered from 541 individual participants enrolled in adult education institutes in Taiwan for structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses. The research results established a 10-scale instrument for assessing adult learners' preferences for CILE. Among the scales of CILE, adult students placed the highest value on relevance to life and reflective thinking, and scored the lowest for critical judgement, ease of use and student negotiation. The SEM analyses revealed that compared to Internet self-efficacy (ISE), self-directed learning readiness plays a major role in predicting adults' preferences for their learning environment, especially for the higher level of intellectual challenge. ISE plays a mediating role in the relationships between Internet usage and the participants' preferences. This result suggests that more time spent on Internet practice may increase adult learners' ISE, which may strengthen their preferences for Internet-based learning environments.     

Learning with new information technologies in schools: perspectives from the psychology of learning and instruction

Abstract  The starting point of the present paper is that the New Information Technologies can only contribute substantially to the improvement of schooling, if they are appropriately embedded in powerful learning environments. The realization of this embedding requires that inquiry and development relating to educational computing are more explicitly based on recent research on learning and instruction, because this domain of investigation has produced an empirically underpinned knowledge base that can guide and orient the design of rich and powerful computer-supported learning environments. In that perspective a series of important and relevant findings of research on learning and instruction are reviewed; they relate to the three major components of a theory of learning from instruction, namely a theory of expertise describing skilled performance in a domain, a theory of the acquisition processes required to achieve competence, and a theory of intervention strategies that are appropriate for eliciting those acquisition processes.     

Supporting science learning in linguistically diverse classrooms: Factors related to the use of bilingual content in a computer-based learning environment

Computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) are a promising means to support language minority (LMi) students in acquiring knowledge and skills through the integration of authentic support in their home language. This study aimed to determine the use of scientific bilingual content offered to fourth-grade students (n = 250) in the CBLE E-Validiv and to identify both student and classroom characteristics related to this use. All the content in E-Validiv is accessible in the language of instruction and one of six other languages. For LMi students, the other language is set to their home language. Multilevel hierarchical regression analyses show that especially LMi students who assess themselves as highly proficient in their home language use the content more in the other language than language majority students. However, even LMi students focus mainly on content in the language of instruction, which indicates that they particularly apply their home language to support their learning process in the language of instruction. Additionally, students who perform higher on science subjects access content more in the language of instruction. The presence of linguistic diversity in the classroom and the positive use of linguistic diversity by the teacher do not seem to matter. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Information commitments: evaluative standards and information searching strategies in web-based learning environments

Abstract 'Information commitments' include both a set of evaluative standards that Web users utilize to assess the accuracy and usefulness of information in Web-based learning environments (implicit component), and the information searching strategies that Web users use on the Internet (explicit component). An 'Information Commitment Survey' (ICS), consisting of aforementioned components, was developed. The participants of this study were 610 university students, coming from four universities in Taiwan, and their information commitments were surveyed. Through a series of structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses with Linear Structure RELationships (LISREL), this study confirmed the reliability and validity of ICS. More importantly, the causal relationships between the two components of ICS were also examined. The findings showed that learners' evaluative standards on Web materials (implicit component) had significant effects on their information searching strategies in Web-based learning environments (explicit component). For example, learners who utilized an advanced evaluative standard, such as using multiple sources to judge the accuracy of Web materials, were significantly more oriented toward using a sophisticated information searching strategy, such as carefully exploring and elaborating information in Web-based learning environments. In other words, learners' evaluative standards for Web materials should be viewed as important predictors for their searching strategies in Web-based learning environments.     

Earth science learning in SMALLab: A design experiment for mixed reality

Conversational technologies such as email, chat rooms, and blogs have made the transition from novel communication technologies to powerful tools for learning. Currently virtual worlds are undergoing the same transition. We argue that the next wave of innovation is at the level of the computer interface, and that mixed-reality environments offer important advantages over prior technologies. Thus, mixed reality is positioned to have a broad impact on the future of K-12 collaborative learning. We propose three design imperatives that arise from our ongoing work in this area grounded in research from the learning sciences and human-computer interaction. By way of example, we present one such platform, the Situated Multimedia Arts Learning Lab [SMALLab]. SMALLab is a mixed-reality environment that affords face-to-face interaction by colocated participants within a mediated space. We present a recent design experiment that involved the development of a new SMALLab learning scenario and a collaborative student participation framework for a 3-day intervention for 72 high school earth science students. We analyzed student and teacher exchanges from classroom sessions both during the intervention and during regular classroom instruction and found significant increases in the number of student-driven exchanges within SMALLab. We also found that students made significant achievement gains. We conclude that mixed reality can have a positive impact on collaborative learning and that it is poised for broad dissemination into mainstream K-12 contexts.     

Middle school students' flipped learning readiness in foreign language classrooms: Exploring its relationship with personal characteristics and individual circumstances

This study surveyed 387 middle school 7th – graders' flipped learning readiness in their English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms and explored the effects of personal characteristics on their readiness levels. These personal characteristics included gender, the availability of outside-school support and resources, foreign language beliefs, perceptions of their English teachers, and how they use the Internet. Through factor analysis, flipped learning readiness consists of five dimensions: learner control and self-directed learning, technology self-efficacy, motivation for learning, in-class communication self-efficacy, and doing previews. It was found that personal characteristics and individual circumstances, including language beliefs, student perceptions of teacher characteristics, the availability of outside-school support and resources, learning performance, study time and net-surfing time, can make a difference to the levels of the readiness dimensions. These findings may shed light on the middle schoolers' flipped learning readiness in EFL classrooms and provide insights for teachers wanting to incorporate individualized instruction in the flipped classroom.     

Synchronous learning best practices: An action research study

Low cost and significant advances in technology now allow instructors to create their own virtual learning environments. Creating social interactions within a virtual space that emulates the physical classroom remains challenging. While students are familiar with virtual worlds and video meetings, they are inexperienced as virtual learners. Over a nine year period we applied iterative cycles of action research through numerous large classes to systematically uncover attributes of success when executing synchronous learning in distributed environments. Findings show technology is not the source of problems; rather, difficulties emerge from human behaviors and their interactions with system features. We conclude with practical takeaway guidelines for video conferencing and immersive virtual environments and a model of nexus of control that elaborates software and classroom management attributes that can lead to successful execution.     

A review of research on bridging the gap between formal and informal learning with technology in primary school contexts

This study reviews empirical research articles published in the field of technology‐enhanced learning in the out‐of‐class contexts in primary schools between the years 2007 and 2016 and explores how the body of research has connected formal and informal learning experiences, referred to in the paper as bridging the gap. The review focuses on 43 selected experiments from 41 research papers, which are in detail examined and classified using the 3 criteria: (a) the Bloom's taxonomy for learning, (b) the intentionality to physical settings classification used to differentiate types of learning in various environments, and (c) the characteristics of seamless learning design. The findings confirm that technology can enhance learning in and out of classroom, especially by impacting student interest, motivation, and engagement. The close examination of the subset of studies with cognitive gains shows that they successfully bridged the gap between learning spaces and that such bridging positively correlates with the number of steps in the learning activity design. The successful bridging of the gap between learning spaces could further benefit from including more online social learning activities into the designed learning process and from involving teachers as cocreators of the learning process and resources.     

Increasing student engagement through virtual interactions: How?

Our ongoing research is focusing on identifying and taxonomising the elements and the factors that affect learner engagement with virtual worlds when hybrid virtual learning models are used. Our main hypothesis links learner engagement with interactions, both in the virtual world and in the physical classroom. In order to examine this subject, there is an elaboration on and consideration of aspects such as the learners’ prior experiences in the use of virtual worlds, their preconceptions about using them as a learning tool and the impact that the instructional designers’ choices have on enhancing the opportunities for interactions. In this paper, we examine the impact that the orientation process has on university students who study computer science and have almost no experience in the use of virtual worlds. Our findings suggest that the orientation process contributed positively to students’ smooth induction and that resulted in having meaningful and engaging interactions. Furthermore, students’ simultaneous coexistence in both environments eliminated the drawbacks of each educational approach and broadened the network of interactions.     

Gender-related differences in computer-mediated communication and computer-supported collaborative learning

Abstract   A question associated with the introduction of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is whether all participants profit equally from working in CSCL environments. This article reports on a review study into gender-related differences in participation in CSCL. As many of the processes in CSCL are similar to those in computer-mediated communication (CMC), studies into CMC are also included in the review. Male dominance is found to play a role in many CMC settings. A learning culture with an explicit focus on participation by all students seems to be related to a more gender-balanced participation in CMC, however. A tendency for boys to be more active participants than girls is also present in CSCL environments, but it is less pronounced than in CMC. This may be explained by the fact that participation is explicitly promoted in most CSCL environments. Gender differences in the character of students' contributions are found in both CMC and CSCL. It is concluded that in order to avoid gender-stereotyped participation and communication patterns, it is necessary to explicitly address inclusiveness as an aspect of a collaborative classroom culture. A plea is made for further research into differential participation by students in CSCL, and the effects thereof on cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Research should also focus on the question how classroom cultures can be promoted that support active participation of all students aimed at collaborative knowledge construction.     

E-Homebook System: A web-based interactive education interface

Children’s academic performance and social competence in school is positively associated with parent involvement. However, the researches about educational learning models often ignore the parent part. Moreover, Internet forms a new paradigm, education and communication approach is more complicated than ever. In this paper, we would like to introduce an Education Wheel model (EWM) which includes students, teachers and parents in the education environment. Under EWM framework, we design an E-Homebook System (EHS) with agents which provide a teacher–parent–student communication interface through Internet. The EHS comprises intelligent agents: interaction agent, instruction agent, information agent, evaluation agent and log agent. The agents manage a learning portfolio conception, observe and record students’ e-learning behavior through the web log, and provide teachers a reference of portfolio information. The agents adopt a trigger function to analyze the students’ learning behavior from Internet as well as from classroom, evaluate overall performance, then send an e-mail message automatically to the teachers and parents to guide and assist the students who need to revise their learning attitude. Similarly, the agents will record parents’ participation portfolio, then teachers may draft better communication strategy. The EHS provides a better communication role between students–parents–teachers, implements an integrated performance measurement method, and conducts a better teaching strategy support interface for elementary education.     

A few design perspectives on one-on-one digital classroom environment

1 : 1 educational computing refers to a scenario where every student in a group or class uses a computing device equipped with wireless communication capability to conduct a learning task. This paper, drawing from design experiences with our digital classroom environment series and other studies, attempts to describe a few valuable 1 : 1 design perspectives for educational computing inside the classroom. We try to describe the major components of the 1 : 1 digital classroom environment and classify the most important component, student devices, according to a set of features. Furthermore, based on the notion of computing affordance, a set of communication affordances are described. This set underpins three basic educational activities, namely: teacher-directed instruction, small group learning and individual learning. Finally, scenarios are exemplified for a few typical educational computing devices. This study concludes with a discussion of short- and long-term research possibilities.     

Connecting levels of activity with classroom network technology

Classroom activity traditionally takes one of three forms, variously oriented toward the levels of individual students, small groups, or the whole class. CSCL systems, however, may enable novel ways to facilitate instruction within or sequence activity across these different levels. Drawing on theoretical accounts of learning at and across different scales of social interaction, this paper examines episodes of classroom activity featuring two learning environment designs that leverage networked digital devices to support face-to-face collaboration. Analysis of these episodes focused on two questions: When did activity shift between small and whole-group levels, and what mechanisms enabled or supported those shifts? Findings suggest that classroom activity in these environments was sometimes characterized by frequent, rapid shifts between levels, as well as instances that suggested hybrid forms of small-group and whole-class interaction. These shifts between and overlaps across levels were enabled and sustained through mechanisms including teacher orchestration, mediating roles played by virtual mathematical objects, learners’ appropriation of shared artifacts and resources, and emergent properties of these complex interactions among classroom participants.     

Learning to teach with worked-out examples: a computer-based learning environment for teachers

Abstract   Learning from worked-out examples has been shown to be very effective in initial cognitive skill acquisition. In order to fully exploit the potential of example-based learning, teachers should, however, know how to effectively employ such examples in classroom instruction. Therefore, we have designed a computer-based learning environment in which mathematics and science teachers learn how to effectively employ worked-out examples. The learning environment was developed according to approved design criteria. The topics that are addressed in the learning environment were chosen in response to the results of a needs assessment that analysed schoolbooks and classroom videos, and took interviews with teachers into account. In experiments as well as in several teacher trainings on example-based learning, the computer-based learning environment was evaluated and improved accordingly. On a more general level, our research and development project showed that a computer-based learning programme could be a sensible tool that supports follow-up work in teacher training contexts.