Physicochemical and functional properties of full fat and defatted cashew kernel flours

Full fat and defatted cashew kernel flours were prepared and analysed for their physicochemical and functional properties. There were significant increase in protein and carbohydrate contents of the flour as a result of defatting. The defatted flour possessed higher Ca, P, Na and K contents. It had improved gel strength, foaming and emulsion properties. Foam capacity for the full fat and defatted flours increased from 42% to 50% and 55% to 57% with increased NaCl concentration up to 0.25 and 0.05  m , respectively. The foam capacity and stability of the flours were also pH dependent. The emulsion activity and stability of both flours decreased with increasing NaCl concentration. Minimum and maximum protein solubility were at pH 4 and 8, respectively for the full fat and defatted flours. These results suggest that defatted cashew flour may have potential application as a functional ingredient and as a supplement in foods.     

Effect of flour blending on functional, baking and organoleptic characteristics of bread

Soybean (full‐fat and defatted) and barley flours were incorporated into wheat flour at 5, 10, 15 and 20% substitution levels. The gluten content, sedimentation value and water absorption capacity of the flour blends and the mixing time of the dough decreased with increase in the level of soybean and barley flour separately and in combinations. Protein and glutelin contents increased significantly on blending of soyflour (full‐fat and defatted) to bread wheat flour. The breads prepared from the blends also varied in their loaf weight, loaf volume and sensory characteristics. The bread volume decreased with increasing amount of non‐wheat flour substitution. The crumb colour changed from creamish white to dull brown and a gradual hardening of crumb texture was observed as the addition of soybean (full‐fat and defatted) and barley flours increased. At the higher levels, the acceptability declined because of the compact texture of the crumb and the strong flavour of the product. The addition of 10% of soyflour (full‐fat and defatted) or 15% of barley flour, full‐fat soy + barley or defatted soy + barley flour to bread flour produced acceptable bread.     

Organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of wheat breads supplemented with soybean and barley flour

Supplementations of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flours at 5, 10, 15 and 20% levels were carried out to test the effects on organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of the supplemented bread. Additions of 15% barley flour, 10% soy flour (full fat and defatted), 15% barley plus full fat soy flour and 15% barley plus defatted soy flour to wheat flour produced acceptable breads. However, substitution of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flour separately and in combinations at 20% levels did not produce organoleptically acceptable bread. Various nutritional parameters, such as protein, fat, total lysine, protein digestibility (in vitro), sugars, starch digestibility (in vitro), total and available minerals, antinutrients, dietary fibre and β-glucan were determined in supplemented and control bread. Increasing the level of substitution from 5 to 10% of full fat and defatted soy flour to wheat flour significantly (P<0.05) increased protein (from 12.1 to 13.7 and 12.4 to 13.8%), lysine (from 2.74 to 3.02 and 2.76–3.05 mg/100 g protein) and total calcium (from 70.2 to 81.4 and 71.9–81.8 mg/100 g) contents. However, there was also an increase in phytic acid (238–260 and 233–253 mg/100 g), polyphenol (324–331 and 321–329 mg/100 g) and trypsin inhibitor activity (193–204 and 193–198 TIU/g). When barley flour was substituted separately, and in combinations, with full fat and defatted soy flour up to 15%, this significantly increased the contents of protein, total lysine, dietary fibre and β-glucan. It may be concluded that breads supplemented with barley and defatted soy flour, up to a 15% level, are organoleptically and nutritionally acceptable.     

Decreased fat accumulation in 3T3‐L1 pre‐adipocytes treated with extracts of heat‐processed soy flour and breads

The potential anti‐adipogenic effects of gluten‐free soy breads made from germinated soybean (GS), steamed soybean (SS) or roasted soybean (RS) were evaluated in an in vitro adipocyte cell model. GS and RS increased the total phenolic (TP) and total flavonoid (TF) contents of flours compared with the raw soybean (NS) flour. RS and GS had the highest TP (1.04 GAE mg g^?1) and TF (0.92 CAE mg g^?1) contents. Baking increased the TP content of breads, 0.09–0.26 GAE mg g^?1, compared with the flours. Fermentation during breadmaking increased the DPPH scavenging activities compared with the flours. The ABTS scavenging exhibited similar patterns to those of DPPH. Lipid accumulation in 3T3‐L1 cells shows that the alcoholic extracts (100 μg mL^?1) of SS flour and bread decreased adipocyte differentiation by 1.6‐ and 2.1‐fold, respectively, compared with control. SS bread extract substantially downregulated the adipogenesis‐related genes such as acetyl‐CoA carboxylase and glycerol‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase.     

PROCESSING AND ACCEPTABILITY OF FRIED CASSAVA BALLS ("AKARA-AKPU") SUPPLEMENTED WITH MELON AND SOYBEAN FLOURS

The processing and acceptability of fried cassava balls (“Akara‐akpu”) supplemented with melon and soybean flours were studied. Cassava flour, defatted soybean flour and cassava mash were produced. Some functional and chemical properties of the flours were determined. Akara‐akpu prepared from 100% cassava mash served as control; 100% cassava flour, 80% cassava flour + 20% defatted soybean and 70% cassava flour + 30% defatted melon flour were prepared. Akara‐akpu balls were subjected to chemical and physical analyses. Akara‐akpu prepared from composite flour blends had higher protein, fat, ash and energy value than Akara‐akpu from 100% cassava mash. The cyanide content and degree of starch gelatinization of Akara‐akpu prepared from 100% cassava mash (control) were higher than Akara‐akpu prepared from cassava mash plus composite flour blends. There was a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in weight and yield between Akara‐akpu prepared from 100% cassava mash (control) and cassava mash plus composite flour blends. There was no significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in volume between Akara‐akpu made from control sample and those cassava plus composite flour blends.     

Recovery and characterization of Balanites aegyptiacaDel. kernel proteins. Effect of defatting,air classification,wet sieving and aqueous ethanol treatment on solubility,digestibility, amino acid composition and sapogenin content

In order to find alternative protein sources in African regions where protein deficiency in nutrition is prevailing, solubility, in‐vitro digestibility, amino acid composition and chemical score of Balanites aegyptiacaDel. kernel proteins were investigated as a function of different processing steps including defatting, air classification, wet sieving and aqueous ethanol treatment. Air classification delivered a fine fraction of 58.1% of the total protein. Applying a wet sieving process, a protein concentrate of 72.9% protein content was achieved but the recovery was very low (35.6%). However, in case of isoelectric precipitation followed by aqueous ethanol treatment both protein content (78.2%) and recovery (53.7%) were high. Data concerning the chemical score revealed, that lysine content of the defatted kernel flour amounted to 74.2% of the recommended FAO/WHO standard level. In‐vitro protein digestibility was found to be higher than of legume proteins. The digestible protein of the full fat flour, defatted flour, air classified and wet sieved fine fractions and protein concentrate were 91.9, 93.7, 82.0, 86.4 and 94.2%, respectively. The sapogenin content per 100 g protein of the investigated protein preparations was significantly lower (46% to 62%) than of the initial material (oilcake).     

Isoflavone content in soy germ flours prepared from two drying methods

Isoflavone glucosides and aglucons in various soybean varieties (Chiang Mai‐60, S.J.‐5, Chiang Mai‐2, Srisumrong‐1, and Nakhonsawan‐1) harvested from dry vs. rainy seasons were quantified. Isoflavone contents of all soy germs ranged from 16.5 to 30.6 μmol g^?1. Regardless of varieties, isoflavone contents in germ of seeds from dry season were higher (P < 0.05) than those from rainy season. The Chiang Mai‐60 germ, having the highest isoflavone content (30.6 μmol g^?1), was selected for germ flour production. Freeze‐dried germ flour contained higher isoflavone aglucons (17.72 μmol g^?1 daidzein; 6.48 mg g^?1 glycitein; 4.28 μmol g^?1 genistein) than those (15.07; 5.59; 3.41) of drum‐dried germ flour. However, isoflavone glucoside contents in freeze‐dried germ flour (3.27 μmol g^?1 daidzin; 1.86 μmol g^?1 glycitin; 1.41 μmol g^?1 genistin) were lower than those (5.22; 3.15; 1.89) of drum‐dried germ flour. Total isoflavone contents of drum‐dried and freeze‐dried germ flours were comparable (34.32 vs. 35.02 μmol g^?1) but more than that (30.16 μmol g^?1) of unprocessed germ flour.     

Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange Treatments for Removing Phenolics and Phytate from Peanut Protein Products

Commercial defatted peanut flour and laboratory defatted peanut meal contained 1.5 and 1.7% phytate, 1756 and 2033 μg g^?1 total phenolic acids and 50 and 120 μg g^?1 neutral phenolics, respectively. Laboratory peanut protein isolate contained undetectable amounts of neutral phenolics, 810 μg g^?1 total phenolic acids and about 1% phytate. The ion exchange treatment removed ≥85% of the phytate and the ion exchange and activated carbon treatments removed 92 and 82%, respectively, of the total phenolic acids from peanut protein isolate. p-Coumaric acid was the major phenolic acid, accounting for 40–68% of the total phenolic acids in all peanut protein products.     

Couscous, a traditional Turkish food product: production method and some applications for enrichment of nutritional value

Traditional Turkish couscous, a cereal‐based product, is made by covering bulgur with milk and flour. Traditionally Turkish couscous was produced from different flours (soyflour and oat flour) and eggs. The nutrient composition of traditional couscous was 90.6% dry matter, 11.27% protein, 2.58% fat, 71.80% carbohydrate, 42.25 mg sodium, 365.62 mg potassium, 2.73 mg iron and 48.30 mg calcium. The calorie content of traditional couscous is about 1487.41 kJ 100 g^?1. The addition of soy and oat flours increased protein content and Ca, K and Fe levels. Sensory properties were also affected. Panellists preferred traditional couscous and couscous with eggs or soyflour over couscous with oat flour.     

Use of ion exchange resins in the extraction of proteins from defatted groundnut and soya flours

A novel method of extraction of proteins from defatted oilseed flours by anionic and cationic exchange resins is described. Extraction was performed under varying conditions with respect to type of resin, resin:flour ratio, flour:water ratio and temperature, and the optimum conditions determined. Amberlite IRC-50 (Na⁺) and Zeokarb-225 (Ca²⁺) extracted 92.0 and 96.5% of the proteins from defatted groundnut flour, respectively. Zeokarb-225 (Na⁺) extracted nearly 66.0% of the proteins from defatted soya flour. Ion exchange resins were superior to alkaline extractants for the solubilisation of proteins from these oilseed flours.     

Preparation and characterization of high‐quality rice bran proteins

Rice bran contains 120–200 g kg^?1 protein in addition to a large amount of fat, carbohydrate, and phytic acid. Rice bran protein (RBP) fractions were refined by a two‐step preparation to eliminate residual carbohydrate. The first step involved the sequential extraction of defatted rice bran into RBP fractions using their distinct solubility to give 37 g kg^?1 of albumin, 31 g kg^?1 of globulin, 27 g kg^?1 of glutelin, and 2 g kg^?1 of prolamin. In the second step, carried out by dissolving in respective solvent and isoelectric precipitation, the protein content of each fraction increased from 69% to 97% for albumin, from 71% to 90% for globulin, from 74% to 83% for glutelin, and from 18% to 20% for prolamin. The low protein content in the prolamin fraction might be due to its low solubility in the protein assay. Emulsifying stability index and surface hydrophobicity increased in the second‐step preparation of albumin and globulin, but not of glutelin. Emulsifying properties of RBPs were lower than that of a soybean protein isolate. Denaturation temperatures and enthalpy values of denaturation for albumin, globulin, glutelin, and prolamin were 50.1 °C/1.2 J g^?1, 79.0 °C/1.8 J g^?1, 74.5 °C/3.0 J g^?1, and 78.5 °C/8.1 J g^?1, respectively. No significant differences in the denaturation temperatures and enthalpy values of denaturation of RBP fractions were obtained with these two‐step preparations (P < 0.05). Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition and properties of two amaranth species: starch and protein

The seeds of two Amaranth species were studied. The starch contents were 543 and 623 g kg^?1 while crude protein contents were 154 and 169 g kg^?1 for Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus seeds, respectively. The effect of several treatments, including cooking, popping and germination and flour air classification on the protein and starch properties were studied. Air classification decreased the starch content and increased the protein content, while heating increased the protein but did not affect the starch content. Germination decreased both starch and protein contents. Amylose content was increased by air classification and heating, but was not affected by germination. It was found that all treatments increased the starch swelling power and reduced the falling number. The resistant starch content was increased in the high protein flour (HPF) fraction and germinated flour compared with the raw flour, while its content decreased in the heat treated seed flours. These processes also affected the starch gelatinization temperature and peak viscosity. The thermal properties of the starch flour were not affected by air classification while gelatinization energy was decreased significantly (by 52.0 and 90.0% and by 70.0 and 95.0%) in cooked and popped A caudatus and A cruentus seed flours, respectively. The gelatinization energy was highest in germinated seeds dried at 90 °C with values of 2.67 and 3.87 J g^?1. Air classification reduced the level of all protein fractions. Thermal treatment decreased the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) and alcohol‐soluble fraction (prolamins) in both species. The levels of all fractions except the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) were reduced significantly in both species by germination, which mainly increased the amount of aspartic acid, serine and alanine, while the amounts of threonine, arginine and tyrosine decreased in both species. The polypeptide bands of the HPF in both species were unchanged compared with the raw seed flours, but more intensive coloured bands were observed. Thermal treatments eliminated major and minor bands above 35.0 KDa in both species. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Studies on bambara groundnut flour performance in Okpa preparation

Bambara groundnut flours of different particle sizes were prepared after bean seeds had been cold‐soaked and/or germinated, dried, milled and sieved. The flours were used to prepare okpa (local dish prepared by steaming mashed bambara groundnut) and their sensory properties determined. Viscosity of the flour pastes, before steaming, were also determined. Results showed that bambara groundnut flours from both germinated and cold‐soaked beans could be used in preparing good quality okpa and, therefore, remove all the problems involved in preparing the raw beans for okpa‐making as is done traditionally. Particle size appeared to play a major role in obtaining good okpa; therefore flours intended for okpa preparation should be such that 66, 86 and 96%, respectively, of cold‐soaked bean flour or 58, 78 and 91%, respectively, of germinated bean flour, after 1, 3 and 5 milling passes, should be in the particle range 1.5–4.5 × 10^?4 m. Slightly higher amounts of the coarse (6.0 × 10^?4 m) particles are needed in the germinated bean flours to compensate for the breakdown of starch and proteins, the gelling agents in bambara groundnut. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Impact of α‐amylase and maltodextrin on physicochemical,functional and antioxidant capacity of spray‐dried purple sweet potato flour

BACKGROUND: Purple sweet potato flour could be used to enhance food products through colour, flavour and nutrients. Purple sweet potato flour has not yet been prepared with maltodextrin and amylase treatment using spray drying. Thus, the investigation was to evaluate the effect of various levels of maltodextrin (30 and 50 g kg^?1 w/v), amylase (3 and 7 g kg^?1 puree) and combined with maltodextrin and amylase on the physicochemical, functional and antioxidant capacity of spray dried purple sweet potato flours. RESULTS: Amylase and amylase with maltodextrin‐treated flours had a higher anthocyanin and total phenolic content than the control and maltodextrin‐treated flours. However, the antioxidant capacity was higher in the control and maltodextrin‐treated flours compared to the amylase and amylase with maltodextrin‐treated flours. The control had a higher water absorption index and lower water solubility index compared to the maltodextrin and combined with amylase and maltodextrin‐treated flours. On the other hand, maltodextrin increased whereas α‐amylase decreased the glass transition temperature. With respect to morphology, the particles of amylase‐treated flours were smaller than the control and maltodextrin‐treated flours. CONCLUSION: The results showed that good quality flour could be prepared by combining 30 g kg^?1 maltodextrin and 7 g kg^?1 amylase treatment. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relationships between various functional,thermal and pasting properties of flours from different Indian black gram (Phaseolus mungo L.) cultivars

Flours from different black gram cultivars were investigated for functional, thermal and pasting properties and related to each other using Pearson correlations and principal component analysis (PCA). Ash, fat, protein content and bulk density of flours ranged between 25.7 and 32.5, 5.2 and 10.2, 220 and 289 g kg^?1 and 519 and 563 kg m^?3, respectively. The water absorption capacity (WAC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flours ranged between 2390 and 3450, and 1130 and 1700 g kg^?1, respectively. Least gelation concentration (LGC) for various black gram flours ranged between 8 and 12%, thereby suggesting their good gelating ability. The results showed that the foams produced by black gram flours were relatively thick with low foaming capacity (36.2–49.2%) and foam stability > 90% after 120 min of storage. The transition temperatures (T_o, T_p and T_c) and enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔH_gel) determined using differential scanning calorimeter, ranged between 71.0 and 75.7, 76.1 and 80.4, 81.9 and 86.0 °C, and 3.08 and 3.67 J g^?1, respectively. Pasting temperature, peak‐, breakdown‐, final‐ and setback viscosity were between 68.9 and 81.1 °C, 2988 and 3699, 1200 and 1730, 2839 and 3520, and 1110 and 1474 mPa s, respectively. PCA showed that UG‐218 and UG‐1008 flours were located at the far left of the score plot with a large negative score, while the KU‐3 and UG‐1017 flours had a large positive score in the first principal component (PC1). Overall, these flours differed to the greatest degree in terms of the properties of their flours. Several significant correlations between functional, thermal and pasting properties were revealed both by Pearson correlation and PCA. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Cooking and texture properties of gluten‐free fettuccine processed from defatted flaxseed flour and rice flour

Nonconventional raw materials have been applied in gluten‐free pasta, to meet the demand of people with coeliac disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cooking properties and texture of pasta formulated with rice flour, defatted flaxseed flour and pregelatinised mixed flour of rice and flaxseed (80:20). For this experiment, simplex design was used. Cooking properties and texture were found within the quality limits established for this type of product. The pasta with the most desirable properties (short optimum cooking time (OCT), less solid loss (SL) and intermediate mass increase (MI)) was that one formulated with 43 g 100 g^?1 of pregelatinised flour, 47 g 100 g^?1 of rice flour and 10 g 100 g^?1 of defatted flaxseed flour. This formulation can be characterised as a food rich in dietary fibre and of high nutritional value.     

PROCESSING AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF YAM BEANS (SPHENOSTYLIS STENOCARPA)

The proximate and selected functional properties of five flours from yam bean (YB) made after the grains were not processed (raw) and processed as boiled, fermented, roasted and malted, were determined. The functional properties were water and fat absorption, gelation, emulsification and whippability. An improvement was observed for protein content of flours processed beans compared to raw flour. Fermentation improved the oil content of the flour. The emulsifying and foaming capacities (50.7 and 40.20%, respectively) observed for raw flour were significantly higher than those for the flours from processed bean. Gelation was significantly (P < 0.05) increased and decreased by fermentation and malting of the bean, respectively. The water absorption capacities ranged from 131.9% in raw flour to 218.8% in flour boiled beans. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the fat absorption capacities of all flours except for the one of fermented beans (0.40 mL/g), which was significantly lower than the value (0.73 mL/g) obtained for the flour from boiled beans. Although a high foaming capacity was observed for raw flour, it was less stable when compared with that of the processed bean flours. Overall, YB flour was found to exhibit good functional properties, and has a great potential for use as an ingredient in selected food systems.     

Functional Properties of Defatted and Detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) Seed Flour

Functional properties of defatted and detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) seed flours were determined and compared with those of soybean flour. Soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours had higher water absorption capacities than defatted Madhuca flour. Due to the presence of saponins, the defatted Madhuca flour showed higher foaming capacity than the soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours.     

Evaluation of processed green and ripe mango peel and pulp flours (Mangifera indica var. Chokanan) in terms of chemical composition,antioxidant compounds and functional properties

BACKGROUND: Mango is a highly perishable seasonal fruit and large quantities are wasted during the peak season as a result of poor postharvest handling procedures. Processing surplus mango fruits into flour to be used as a functional ingredient appears to be a good preservation method to ensure its extended consumption. RESULTS: In the present study, the chemical composition, bioactive/antioxidant compounds and functional properties of green and ripe mango (Mangifera indica var. Chokanan) peel and pulp flours were evaluated. Compared to commercial wheat flour, mango flours were significantly low in moisture and protein, but were high in crude fiber, fat and ash content. Mango flour showed a balance between soluble and insoluble dietary fiber proportions, with total dietary fiber content ranging from 3.2 to 5.94 g kg^?1. Mango flours exhibited high values for bioactive/antioxidant compounds compared to wheat flour. The water absorption capacity and oil absorption capacity of mango flours ranged from 0.36 to 0.87 g kg^?1 and from 0.18 to 0.22 g kg^?1, respectively. CONCLUSION: Results of this study showed mango peel flour to be a rich source of dietary fiber with good antioxidant and functional properties, which could be a useful ingredient for new functional food formulations. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Extraction of saponin from Camellia oleifera cake and evaluation of its antioxidant activity

Response surface methodology was employed to optimise extraction conditions of saponins from Camellia oleifera cake. Optimal conditions were extraction at 82.2 °C for 3.3 h with an 8.6:1 ratio (mL g^?1) of solvent to solid. The saponin extract was further extracted with n‐butanol, and nine saponins were found as the main components. The identification of these saponins was carried out by HPLC–ESI–MS, and their possible structures were given. Antioxidant activities of the saponins were evaluated in vitro by 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picryl‐hydrazyl (DPPH), 1, 2, 3‐phentriol self‐oxidation and metal chelating activity assays. IC₅₀ value of each assay was 3866 ± 3, 4744 ± 2 and 2389 ± 2 μg mL^?1, respectively. The effects of environmental factors on antioxidant activity of saponins from C. oleifera cake were studied for the first time. The antioxidant activity is pH dependent with 9.0 as the optimal pH and is also temperature independent.