多个损失厌恶零售商共存的一对多供应链 回购契约及其协调机理

为实现供应链的整体运作绩效最大,本文以一个风险中性的供应商和多个损失厌恶的零售商组成的两阶段供应链为研究对象,基于前景理论对损失厌恶的界定,采用考虑零售商损失厌恶系数的供应链回购契约模型。论证得出,多个存在竞争关系的损失厌恶零售商存在唯一的纳什均衡总订购量使其期望效用最大;在零售商的损失厌恶程度较大或者数量较少的情况下,通过供应链回购契约的协调,存在唯一的回购价格使得供应链的整体运作绩效最大,实现供应链协调。     

商业信用与促销努力下垄断制造商和竞争性双寡头零售商的协调

在垄断制造商和竞争性双寡头零售商构成的两级供应链中,通过考虑零售商所做的促销努力和制造商提供的商业信用,建立两个零售商之间Nash均衡、合谋和Stackelberg均衡3种情况下的供应链分散和集中决策模型,分析供应链成员和整个渠道的绩效,得到信用期限和促销努力的最优值。在此基础上,同时考虑供应链成员的竞争与协调,通过兼顾供应链成员的个体利益和渠道整体利益,确定实现协调的契约参数与条件。最后通过数值算例对模型进行比较和验证。结果表明,所建立的协调机制既能保证供应链成员的参与,又提高了渠道的整体利益,从而实现供应链的协调。     

Coordinating a three-layer supply chain with uncertain demand and random yield

The paper considers a three-layer supply chain involving one raw-material supplier, one manufacturer and one retailer. The market demand is assumed to be stochastic and productions at the raw-material supplier and manufacturer are subject to random yield. The centralised model is studied as the benchmark case. The decentralised model is solved and Nash equilibrium solutions are obtained. It is shown that buyback contract fails to coordinate such a supply chain. However, a composite contract framed combining buyback, and sales rebate and penalty contracts is shown to coordinate the supply chain. Numerical examples are provided to illustrate the developed models.     

Pricing and ordering decisions of two competing supply chains with different composite policies: a Stackelberg game-theoretic approach

In today’s global highly competitive markets, competition happens among supply chains instead of companies, as the members of supply chains. So, the partners of the chains seek to apply efficient coordinating strategies like discount, return, refund, buyback, or the other coordinating policies to abate the operation costs of the chains and subsequently increase market shares. Hence, because of the importance and application of these strategies in the current non-exclusive markets, in this study, we introduce different composite coordinating strategies to enhance the coordination of the supply chains. Here, we consider two competing supply chains where both chains launch the same product under different brands to the market by applying different composite coordinating strategies. Each supply chain comprises one manufacturer and a group of non-competing retailers where the manufacturer receives raw materials from an outside supplier and transforms them into a finished product; then, the products are sold to the retailers to satisfy the demands of market. In the first chain, a composite (QFF) policy, which is the combination of quantity and freight discount, as well as free shipping quantity policies, are considered between upstream and downstream members while in the second one, different composite polices are considered between upstream and downstream members such that the supplier offers a composite policy, as the first chain, to the manufacturer and the manufacturer proposes a composite (QPR) policy, which is the combination of quantity discount and partial-refund customer return policies, to the retailers. The main objective of the paper is to determine the optimal selling prices and the order quantities of the manufacturer and the retailers in each chain in presence of different composite coordinating strategies. A Stackelberg game-theoretic approach is employed between the members of each chain where the manufacturer is a follower and the retailers are leaders. The concavity of profit functions is proved. Finally, the applicability of the models is justified by presented numerical examples. Moreover, the effects of these strategies on the decisions of the chains’ partners are examined.     

Coordinating a supply chain under demand and cost disruptions

In this paper, we investigate the coordination of a supply chain consisting of one manufacturer and n Bertrand competing retailers under disruptions of market demand and production cost. We present a coordination model of a supply chain under normal scenarios. Our findings demonstrate that the coordination scheme designed for the initial production plan should be revised when disruptions of market demand and production cost occur. To resolve this issue, we consider the possible deviation costs caused by disruptions and propose optimal decision models for different disruptions under centralised decision-making. We present an improved revenue-sharing contract model to coordinate the decentralised supply chain under disruptions. The proposed models are then further analysed through numerical examples.     

考虑横向公平的双渠道销售闭环供应链定价策略与协调研究

考虑双渠道零售商和制造商组成的闭环供应链,分别构建了制造商直接回收、委托第三方回收模式下的动态博弈模型,以公平中性时的均衡策略为参照,对比分析了线下零售商的横向公平偏好对双渠道闭环供应链中各决策主体定价策略及利润的影响。研究表明,无论零售商是否存在横向公平关切行为,制造商直接回收模式都优于委托第三方回收。在直接回收模式下,线下零售商的横向公平偏好使得在正向供应链中的两零售商为提高市场占有率会竞相降低零售价格,制造商为鼓励竞争会降低批发价,并且价格均与横向公平关切系数负相关。在逆向供应链中,制造商会提高废旧产品的回收率;相比公平中性的情况,此定价策略使制造商和整个供应链系统效用增加,而两零售商收益递减。制造商作为渠道管理者为鼓励零售商之间竞相降价,可通过一个三方收益共享的契约实现协调,达到帕累托最优。     

Supply chain management using put option contracts with information asymmetry

We study the problem of hedging demand uncertainty in a supply chain consisting of a risk-neutral supplier and a risk-averse retailer under a buyback contract. We use semi-variance of the possible profit values as a measure of the retailer’s risk attitude. We first study the setting where the supplier can observe the risk type of the retailer and find that in this case the supplier can design a buyback contract that extracts the maximum profit for the supplier. When the retailer’s type is unobservable, a new contract needs to be designed (the ‘option buyback contract’) and we show that in this case the retailers will self-select and chose an order quantity that maximises the total supply chain profit. Through numerical computations, we analyse the dynamics between the benefits of hedging risk, information rent and the retailer’s type, and outline cases when, depending on the shape of the reservation utilities of the retailers, it is too costly for the supplier to manage risk. In conclusion, our results show that whereas semi-variance has appealing properties as a measure of risk, its use introduces analytical challenges that can only be overcome through numerical computation.     

基于均值-CVaR的回购契约供应链创新协调机制

为了研究制造商创新情形下回购契约供应链的订货及协调机制,构建了回购契约Stackelberg博弈模型,运用均值-CVaR的方法探讨了回购契约供应链创新协调问题。研究表明,均值-CVaR方法比CVaR度量准则更能提高零售商的订货量,指出零售商的风险规避程度影响供应链的创新和需求。当零售商喜好风险,将使制造商的创新投入度增大,供应链渠道的总需求增加。考虑到零售商过度订购的潜在风险,通过对回购商品数量的限制,改进制造商创新投入回购契约供应链,结果表明,改进的制造商创新投入回购契约能够降低零售商的订货量,同时,在一定条件下能够使供应链协调。最后通过数值算例分析了β和λ对最优订货量和创新投入度的影响。     

Competition and cooperation in a supply chain with an offline showroom under asymmetric information

Offline showrooms develop rapidly to resolve consumers’ uncertainty about whether products fit their needs when they purchase online. This paper considers a supply chain where an offline showroom provides experience service for an existing online retailer and intends to introduce a new competing online retailer to satisfy consumers’ heterogeneous demand. The offline showroom has better knowledge of demand information due to closer to offline consumers. We examine the impact of competition and the offline showroom's optimal channel cooperation strategy under asymmetric information and analyse the equilibrium results under the optimal strategy to shed light on channel cooperation and information strategy for supply chain members. We find that under asymmetric information competition prompts the offline showroom to conceal information which generates signal cost (negative information effect) and to increase experience service level which creates value (positive service effect). The optimal channel cooperation strategy depends on the trade-off between these effects. We also find that competition increases the existing online retailer's profit in some conditions. Besides, in some conditions information asymmetry harms all supply chain members, which suggests the offline showroom to share information with the online retailers; in some conditions, information asymmetry harms the offline showroom but benefits the online retailers.     

Coordination of dual-channel supply chains under demand disruptions management decisions

This paper examines optimal decisions and coordination models for a dual-channel supply chain when the two end competition market demands are simultaneously disrupted. Firstly, we developed the pricing and production decisions models without demand disruptions and propose a revenue sharing contract to coordinate the dual-channel supply chain where the manufacturer is a Stackelberg leader and the retailer is a follower. We derived the conditions under which the maximum profit can be achieved in detailed. We compared the profits under normal case and disrupted case and quantified the information value of knowing demand disruptions. We proposed an improved revenue sharing contract to coordinate the dual-channel supply chain with demand disruptions. The results indicate that the adjusting prices and production quantity are the optimal decisions whether the demand disruptions case or normal case. We also find that the original revenue sharing contract is a special case of improved revenue sharing contract and the market scale change, channel substitutability and deviation cost affected the improved revenue sharing contract under demand disruptions. Finally, we further conduct numerical experiments to show how the demand disruption affects the decisions.     

双方不完全信息下政府引导的逆向供应链协调研究

讨论双方不完全信息下政府引导一个制造商和两个零售商组成的逆向供应链的协调问题。运用信号甄别和委托代理理论,分别从政府不参与、政府奖励零售商和政府奖励制造商三个方面得到零售商和制造商的协调策略。研究表明:定价合同可有效避免逆向选择,实现逆向供应链协调;高市场需求状态下低成本零售商获得收益较高;政府对企业的合理奖励,尤其是对零售商的奖励,可以促进逆向供应链协调,提高收益。     

汽车租赁供应链中汽车制造商的回购定价策略

研究了在汽车租赁供应链中,当汽车制造商为Stackelberg博弈的领导者而租赁商为追随者时.汽车制造商向租赁商提供回购合同时的回购定价策略,分析了租赁商产品维护水平和二手市场对供应链决策的影响.结果表明,与汽车制造商不提供回购合同的情形相比,汽车制造商在一定条件下通过实施回购合同可以有效实现汽车租赁供应链的协调.     

两个零售商环境下数量柔性契约研究

在综合国内外研究成果的基础上,借鉴以单个供应商和单个零售商组成的两级供应链的研究,形成以单个供应商与两个零售商的两阶段供应链为基本研究对象,通过数字解析方法和量本利分析方法对供应链契约中常用的数量柔性契约进行分析。证明了这种灵活订货模型可以协调供应商和零售商之间的决策行为,使得供应链的整体利润达到最优,为多零售商的复杂供应链的研究提供参考。     

突发事件且非对称信息下的供应链回购契约模型

考虑由一个制造商和一个零售商组成的供应链,在随机市场需求下,分析了回购契约对供应链的协调作用;探讨了突发事件导致市场需求和零售商边际成本同时变化且变化后的零售商边际成本是不对称信息时回购契约对供应链的协调作用,研究表明：基准的回购契约对突发事件下的供应链不再发挥协调作用,为此,给出了供应链应对突发事件的最优应对策略,并调整了原来的回购契约使其具有抗突发事件性。用一个算例对比加以说明。      

基于回购合同的三级供应链协调

现有的研究表明回购合同能够很好地协调二级供应链网络,但对于一个三级供应链而言,协调是否仍然有效,尚无定论。为了回答这一问题,本文建立了由单个制造商、单个分销商、单个零售商组成的三级供应链网络,运用数学模型考察制造商与分销商以及分销商与零售商之间的回购合同对整条供应链的协调作用,结果表明合理设置回购合同参数能够有效增加供应链各成员利润,实现各成员间的“共赢”,并得到了实现“共赢”的条件。最后通过一个算例证明了该模型的有效性。     

Supply contract design under price volatility and competition

This study analyses index-based contract designs and contract equilibria in a competitive setting. We consider a two-echelon supply chain consisting of two manufacturers and a retailer. Each manufacturer procures a commodity in a spot market and uses such a commodity to produce a product. The manufacturers initially choose either an index-based or fixed-price contract. Thereafter, the manufacturer that adopts an index-based contract designs the contract price on the basis of the spot and forward prices of its input commodity. Finally, the two products are sold through the common retailer. Our analysis indicates that an index-based contract provides a manufacturer with a contingent pricing mechanism, thereby enabling the contract price to respond to the spot price of its input commodity. If only one manufacturer adopts an index-based contract, then the contract price is designed to respond positively to the corresponding spot price, while the contract design constantly benefits the designer but may either benefit or hurt the rival and retailer. If both manufacturers adopt an index-based contract, then the contract price may be designed to respond negatively to the corresponding spot price. The reason is that the manufacturer intends to dampen competition by adopting an opposite contract price design. Further study shows that in equilibrium, both manufacturers consistently adopt an index-based contact if the spot prices are positively correlated. However, differentiated contract strategies may be optimal for manufacturers if the correlation is negative.     

需求信息更新下缺货成本共担的易逝品供应链协调研究

考虑在销售期初对市场需求进行更新的单制造商和单零售商组成的易逝品两级供应链系统,在缺货情形下仅允许零售商一次订货,且制造商采取两阶段生产并与零售商共同分担缺货成本。分析了缺货成本共担水平对供应链的影响,并用算例对结果进行了验证。研究表明,缺货成本共担水平与零售商订货量成正相关关系,与零售商利润成反相关关系;通过引入期权契约,供应链得到帕累托改进。     

不对称信息下逆向供应链契约设计

制造商对废旧产品的回收积极性在很大程度上影响逆向供应链的实施和协调.运用委托代理理论和甄别博弈的显示性原理,探讨不对称信息下逆向供应链契约设计问题.分别基于政府不参与逆向供应链运作、政府对制造商实施奖励、政府对制造商实施奖惩三种前提,建立决策模型,得到不同模型下制造商提供给零售商的契约设计策略.三种契约比较分析显示:政...     

Incentives for quality improvement efforts coordination in supply chains with partial cost allocation contract

In this paper, we consider quality improvement efforts coordination in a two-stage decentralised supply chain with a partial cost allocation contract. The supply chain consists of one supplier and one manufacturer, both of which produce defective products. Two kinds of failure cost occur within the supply chain: internal and external. The supplier and the manufacturer determine their individual quality levels to maximise their own profits. We propose a partial cost allocation contract, under which the external failure cost is allocated between the manufacturer and the supplier at different rates based on information derived from failure root cause analysis. If the quality levels of the supplier and the manufacturer are observable, we show that the partial cost allocation contract coordinates the supply chain, provided that the failure root cause analysis does not erroneously identify the manufacturer’s fault as the supplier’s, and the supplier does not take responsibility for the manufacture’s fault. In the single moral hazard model, where only the quality level of the supplier is unobservable, the optimal share rates require the supplier to take some responsibility for the manufacture’s fault. However, in the double moral hazard model, where quality levels of the supplier and the manufacturer are unobservable to each other, the optimal share rates require the supplier not to take responsibility for the manufacturer’s fault. It is noted that the root cause analysis conducted by the manufacturer may have its disadvantage in attributing the fault to the supplier when both sides are at fault. We also propose a contract based on the dual root cause analysis to reduce the supplier’s penalty cost. Numerical results illustrate that the partial cost allocation contract satisfies the fairness criterion compared with the traditional cost allocation contract.     

Consumer search,transshipment, and bargaining power in a supply chain

We study a decentralised supply chain with one manufacturer and two symmetric retailers who could transship their excess inventory between each other. Without transshipment, the retailer’s unsatisfied customers search and buy the product at the other retailer with some probability. With transshipment, the retailer can transship the other retailer’s excess inventory to fulfil its own unmet demand. However, a transshipment price is often charged by one retailer for transshipping goods to another. We show the retailer’s profit is unimodal in the transshipment price, and the manufacturer’s profit increases in the customer search probability. Although the retailer’s preference over transshipment depends on the magnitude of search probability and transshipment price, the retailer may always prefer the transshipment no matter their magnitude. We then study the effect of bargaining power over the transshipment decision (whether to transship between retailers and at what transshipment price). Our analysis suggests that the manufacturer always prefers to control the transshipment price rather than to control whether to transship, while the retailer can prefer both. We also find that increasing bargaining power always benefits the manufacturer but could hurt the retailer. We finally check the robustness of our results by investigating the case with asymmetric retailers