Numerical definition of an equivalent GTAW heat source

The aim of this paper is to present a new numerical heat source for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) simulation. This source is described as a homogeneous thermal flux which is defined by a power P distributed in a disk the radius of which is R: it enables the main dimensions of the weld bead and the evolution in temperature in the solid part to be predicted. The two parameters P and R relate to the process parameters, the arc length h and the current intensity I.Experimental tests were performed in order to study the weld bead dimensions in incomplete penetration and full penetration welds. For each test, the heat source parameters (P,R) which enable the experimental weld bead dimensions to be obtained were identified: a link between the heat source parameters (P,R) and the welding parameters (I,h) was established and thus a predictive heat source was produced.     

Finite element simulation of laser spot welding

Abstract

The present work reports on a two-dimensional axisymmetric finite element analysis of heat flow during laser spot welding, taking into account the temperature dependence of the physical properties and latent heat of transformations. An analysis based on conduction heat transfer alone, but using the 'double ellipsoidal' representation of the laser beam, seems to be sufficient to estimate the transition to keyhole formation during laser spot welding, although the 'double ellipsoidal' representation requires an a priori knowledge of the expected weld pool dimensions. Transient temperature isotherms and the weld pool dimensions are predicted using the model; the latter are found to compare well with measurements of weld bead dimensions. The results show that the keyhole mode is stimulated using either a high laser power and low on-time or a low laser power and high on-time. The outcomes are found to be sensitive to the assumed absorptivity and the assumed weld pool depth used to define the 'double ellipsoidal' heat source.     

Experimental study on relationship between heat parameter and angular distortion

It is well known that weld residual stress and distortion should be controlled appropriately for structural integrity. Recently, it has become much more necessary to control weld distortion to highly improve manufacturing efficiency. Various studies on control of weld distortion had been conducted based on clarification of influential dominant factors for that. The influential dominant factors had been studied from a viewpoint of temperature distribution in plate thickness section. Without considering moving the weld heat source, the temperature distribution is controlled by weld heat input (Q_net) per weld length. Angular distortion, which is controlled by temperature distribution along the direction of plate thickness (h), is controlled by heat input parameter (Q_net/h²). However, it has recently become known that the conventional results cannot be applied to all welding processes because such processes are becoming more diversified. It is significant for more accurate control of angular distortion to investigate once again the relationship between the heat input parameter and angular distortion. In this study, a series of experiments on the relationship between heat input parameter and angular distortion are carried out. The effects of welding current and welding speed are investigated individually in both TIG and MAG welding. The difference between these welding methods is also investigated. Based on the result, the effects of them are discussed in relation to temperature distribution during welding. It is considered that angular distortion is affected by temperature distribution not only in plate thickness section but also along welding direction. So, angular distortion is not always controlled by only the conventional heat input parameter because the heat input parameter is proposed as the influential dominant factor for temperature distribution in plate thickness section. It is concluded that generation characteristics of inherent strain should be considered in relation to three-dimensional temperature distributions during welding for more accurate control of angular distortion.     

Influence of laser beam variables on AZ91D weld fusion zone microstructure

Abstract

The influence of the laser beam variables on rapidly solidified magnesium alloy AZ91D weld microstructures was investigated using a continuous 1.2 kW Nd-YAG laser. To generate two- or three-dimensional heat flow thermal cycles, 2 mm thickness specimens were bead on plate welded using a focused 0.7 mm beam, 600 and 900 W power, and travel speeds from 10 to 110 mm s^-1. The fusion zones were examined via microscopy, electron dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and tested for microhardness. Fusion zone dimensions were first measured and correlated with laser beam variables, and then used to estimate weld solidification times from well known formulations. Measurements showed that fusion zone hardness increased considerably for short solidification times (of the order of 15 ms). Hardness was lower near the fusion line, but greater where the last liquid solidified. Using EDS and XRD it was demonstrated that short solidification times led to greater fractions of redistributed aluminium in the last liquid left at the weld surface when heat flow was three-dimensional. Hardness was correlated not only with β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ fractions, but also with finer microstructures, consistent with the Mg-Al phase equilibria and concepts of solidification.     

Development of efficient numerical heat transfer model coupled with genetic algorithm based optimisation for prediction of process variables in GTA spot welding

Abstract

Although numerical heat transfer models based on conduction mode of heat transfer have become a strong basis for the quantitative analysis of fusion welding, they still find limited use in actual design for three primary reasons. First, these traditional models consider a volumetric heat source term, which ironically requires a-priori knowledge of the final weld pool dimensions. Second, the numerical models need confident values of a few parameters, e.g. arc efficiency and arc radius, which are usually uncertain and requires many trial and error simulations to realise their suitable values. Third, these models are rarely attempted for the prediction of possible weld conditions for a requisite or target weld dimensions, which is of paramount interest in design for welding. The present work attempts to circumvent these issues by linking a genetic algorithm (GA) based global optimisation scheme with a finite element based three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model. The numerical model includes a volumetric heat source that adapts itself to the computed weld pool geometry at any instant. The GA module identifies the optimum values of a set of uncertain parameters needed for the reliable modelling calculations and next, identifies the suitable values of the process variables, e.g. weld current, for a target weld dimension. In each case, the GA module guides the numerical model to compute weld dimensions for a given set of inputs, traces the sensitivity of the error in prediction on the inputs being optimised, updates them accordingly and reuses the numerical model to finally obtain their optimised values. The complete integrated model is validated with a number of experimental results in gas tungsten arc spot welding processes.     

Influence of process variables on weld bead quality in two wire tandem submerged arc welding of HSLA steel

Two-wire tandem submerged arc welding process involves simultaneous depositions from two electrode wires with the leading wire usually connected to a DC power source and the trailing wire connected to a pulsed AC power source. The weld bead profile and mechanical properties in the tandem submerged welding are significantly affected by the leading and trailing wire current transients and the welding speed. We present here a detailed experimental study on the influence of leading wire current, trailing wire current pulses, and welding speed on the weld bead dimensions and mechanical properties in single-pass tandem submerged welding of a typical HSLA steel. It is realized that the weld bead penetration is primarily influenced by the leading wire current while the weld bead width and the reinforcement height are sensitive to the trailing wire current pulses. Greater magnitude of trailing wire current pulses and shorter negative pulse duration increase the weld pool volume leading to reduced cooling rate and poor mechanical properties as the formation of the strengthening phases like acicular ferrite is inhibited. In contrast, increase in welding speed reduces the rate of heat input thereby enhancing the cooling rate and the weld bead mechanical properties. A set of empirical relations are developed to estimate the weld bead dimensions and mechanical properties as function of the welding conditions. The predictions from the empirical relations and the corresponding measured results are observed to be in fair agreement.     

预熔氧化层对AA-TIG焊缝形貌的影响

AA－TIG焊（arc assisted activating TIG welding）是一种新型高效焊接方法,该方法通过焊前采用小电流辅助电弧以Ar＋O：作为保护气体在待焊部位预熔一道氧化层,然后再进行常规TIG焊,可获得深而窄的焊缝．试验通过改变辅助电弧工艺参数来改变预熔氧化层的厚度,分析预熔氧化层厚度对焊缝成形的影响．结果表明,辅助电弧的电流、速度以及辅助电弧中氧气流量对预熔氧化层厚度有很大的影响,辅助电弧中氧气流量越大、辅助电弧热输入越大时,预熔氧化层越厚;AA—TIG焊时预熔氧化层的厚度对焊缝深宽比影响较大,随着预熔氧化层的增厚,焊缝深宽比先增加后减小．     

Effect of welding conditions on reduction in angular distortion by welding with trailing heat sink

Abstract

The effectiveness of welding with a trailing heat sink in reducing the angular distortion of a weld has been experimentally investigated with focus on the cooling position. A numerical model of welding with a trailing heat sink is constructed through the comparison of measured values of weld penetration, thermal cycles and angular distortion with those calculated. On the basis of this model, the effect of welding heat input conditions on the reduction in angular distortion is discussed to evaluate the versatility of welding with a trailing heat sink. The results indicate that the choice of an appropriate cooling position behind the welding heat source is essential for the effective reduction in angular distortion. The reduction in angular distortion by the heat sink at the appropriate cooling position increases with the heat input parameter Q_net/h, where Q_net is the weld heat input and h is the thickness of the plate.     

Study on stress and deformation of keyhole gas tungsten arc-welded joints

Keyhole gas tungsten arc welding(K-TIG)of Q345 low alloy steel plates was simulated by using SYSWELD software.The temperature field of the K-TIG welding process was simulated with three different combined heat sources and was compared with the weld profile that was obtained experimentally.The temperature field that was obtained by a combination of a double ellipsoid heat source on the upper half and a three-dimensional Gauss heat source on the lower half was similar to the real situation.The effects of plate thickness,gap and welding speed on the deformation and stress of the K-TIG welded joints were investigated by K-TIG welding numerical simulation.A reduction in the thickness of the weld plates reduced the z-direction deformation and transverse residual stress;an appropriate gap reduced the residual stress and an increase in the welding speed reduced deformation after welding,but did not help to control the residual stress after welding.     

Factors controlling the magnesium weld morphology in deep penetration welding by a CO2 laser

In laser welding with power density beyond 10⁴ W · mm⁻², the formation of plasma cavities, commonly referred to as keyholes, leads to deep penetration welds with high aspect ratios. In this paper, the morphologies of keyhole welds produced with a 6 kW CW CO₂ laser on two die-cast magnesium alloys, AZ91 and AM50, are compared. It was found that the two magnesium alloys responded differently to laser welding. Though irregular weld cross-section profiles were consistently observed on each materials, bead dimensions often varied with the welding variables in contrasting ways. For both alloys, important characteristics of the weld beads such as depth, width, crown height (hump), and surface ripples were analyzed as a function of the welding parameters, most particularly the heat input. Results show that the use of heat input, a variable grouping two welding parameters into one, was often inadequate in characterizing the bead morphology. Several explanations are given, including base metal vaporization, but the process of bremsstralung absorption explains it well and rationalizes many observed characteristics of laser weld morphology.     

CO_2激光焊接600MPa DP钢接头组织与性能

采用CO2激光对抗拉强度为600MPa,厚度1.4mm的DP钢进行焊接.研究焊接速度对焊缝外观和截面成形的影响、接头的组织特点、硬度、强度和成形能力.结果表明,激光功率相同,焊接速度较低时焊缝易产生气孔,焊接速度较高时易发生飞溅;焊接速度对焊缝熔深及熔宽也有影响.焊缝区组织主要由马氏体构成,从焊缝、焊接热影响区到母材,组织中马氏体含量下降,接头的最高硬度出现在焊缝或热影响区.在平行于焊缝方向,焊接接头的抗拉强度高于母材,垂直于焊缝方向,接头的抗拉强度与母材相当.由于焊缝出现马氏体组织,接头的塑性和韧性降低,板材的冲压成形能力下降.     

Study on the application for electromagnetic controlled molten pool welding process in overhead and flat position welding

Abstract

In fusion welding, gravity makes a molten metal flow downward and it sometimes causes an irregular shaped weld bead and weld defects such as an undercut. To solve this problem, the authors propose a new electromagnetic controlled molten pool welding process method which controls the molten metal flow by using upward electromagnetic forces, and the applicability of this method to industry is examined. In flat position welding with excessive heat input, the molten metal tends to sag down and an undercut defect is likely to occur. It is found that the upward electromagnetic force given by adjusting the conditions of magnetic field can lift the molten metal up, resulting in the remarkably improved shape of a penetration bead. It is further found that, even in overhead position welding, a well shaped penetration bead without undercuts is obtained by adjusting the welding touch angle as well as magnetic field conditions.     

TC4钛合金激光焊缝形貌与残余应力数值分析

针对激光深熔焊特点,采用均匀体热源模型、双椭球热源模型和组合热源模型,对TC4钛合金CO₂激光深熔焊的焊缝形貌和残余应力进行了数值模拟与试验.结果表明,在进行激光深熔焊焊缝形貌与残余应力数值计算中,应根据激光焊接热输入选择激光热源模型,并提出了均匀热源模型适合较大热输入,双椭球热源模型适合中等热输入,而组合热源模型适合较小热输入的选择原则;组合热源模型和双椭球热源模型均能体现热输入随深度的递减变化,焊缝轮廓呈现圆锥形和钉子形;均匀体热源的上下表面的残余应力分布基本一致,而双椭球热源和组合热源模型的下表面残余应力明显低于上表面.     

厚板多层多道焊温度场的有限元分析

考虑坡口形式对焊接热输入分布的影响及焊缝横断面形状特征,建立了超细晶Q460高强钢厚板多层多道GMAW焊有限元分析模型.利用ANSYS软件对超细晶钢多层多道焊焊缝及热影响区形状尺寸进行了模拟计算,计算结果与试验结果吻合较好.对超细晶钢多层多道焊温度场及热循环曲线进行了计算和定量分析.结果表明,后续焊缝对整个厚度方向上热影区热循环的峰值温度、高温停留时间及冷却时间有重要影响,应严格控制后续焊缝热输入或层间温度.     

Effect of oxygen content in He–O2 shielding gas on weld shape in ultra deep penetration TIG

Abstract

The effect of the shielding gas concentration on the weld shape was studied for the moving bead on plate TIG welding of SUS304 stainless steel under He–O₂ mixed shielding. The small addition of oxygen to the helium base shielding gas can precisely control the oxygen content in a liquid pool and the weld shape. Oxygen is a surface active element for stainless steel. When the oxygen content in the liquid pool is above the critical value of ～ 70 ppm, the weld shape suddenly changes from a wide shallow type to a deep narrow one due to the change in the Marangoni convection from the outward to inward direction on the liquid pool surface. Weld shape variations influenced by the welding parameters including welding speed, welding current and electrode tip work distance under pure He and He–0.4%O₂ mixed gas shielding were systematically investigated. The investigation results showed that the final shape of the TIG weld depends to a large extent on the pattern and magnitude of the Marangoni convection on the pool surface, which is governed by the combined effect of the oxygen content in a liquid pool, temperature coefficient of the surface tension (dσ s/dT) and the temperature gradient on the pool surface (dT/dr, r is the radius of the weld pool surface). It is considered that the change in welding parameters alters the temperature distribution and gradient on the pool surface, and thus, affects the magnitude of the Marangoni convection and final weld shape.     

Thermal analysis of horizontal fillet joints by considering bead shape in gas metal arc welding

Abstract

In gas metal arc (GMA) welding, the weld size, that is, the locally melted area of a workpiece, is one of the most important factors determining the strength of a welded structure. Variations in the welding power and the welding heat flux may affect the weld pool formation and ultimately the size of the weld. Therefore, an accurate prediction of the weld size requires a precise analysis of the weld thermal cycle. In the present study, a model that can estimate the weld bead geometry and a method for thermal analysis, including the model, are suggested. To analyse the weld bead geometry, a mathematical model was developed with transformed coordinates to apply to horizontal fillet joints. A heat flow analysis was performed using a two-dimensional finite element model that was adopted to compute the base metal melting zone. The reliability of the proposed model and the thermal analysis was evaluated through experiments, and the results showed that the proposed model was highly effective in predicting the weld bead shape, and that the predicted melting zone of the base metal also corresponded well with the experimental profile.     

K-TIG焊接接头的应力与变形

采用SYSWELD软件对Q345低合金钢板的匙孔型钨极气保焊（keyhole gas tungsten arc welding,K-TIG）焊接过程进行了模拟,选用了3种形式的组合热源对K-TIG焊接过程的温度场进行数值模拟,并与实际焊缝轮廓进行对比,发现采用上半部分双椭球热源和下半部分3D高斯热源的组合热源所得温度场与实际情况较为相似.并通过K-TIG焊接数值模拟,分别研究板厚、间隙和焊接速度对K-TIG焊接接头变形和应力的影响.结果表明,减小焊接板厚有利于减小焊后z向变形和横向残余应力,留出适当的间隙有利于减小焊后残余应力,增大焊接速度有利于减小焊后变形,但不利于控制焊后残余应力.     

Effect of welding speed on microstructure and corrosion resistance of Al–Li alloy weld joint

The corrosion resistance of a weld has a great impact on the service life of the joint. Changes in welding parameters can cause changes to the heat input, which affect the formation of the weld bead and the precipitation of the second phase, which determines the corrosion resistance of the weld. In this paper, the effect of a change in the welding speed on 2195 aluminium–lithium (Al–Li) alloy joints welded by laser and metal inert gas (laser-MIG) hybrid welding using Al–Si welding wire was studied. The macrostructure and microstructure of the weld were characterized by optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the predominant precipitates in the laser-MIG hybrid welded Al–Li alloy were the θ (Al₂Cu) and T (Al–Li–Si) phases. As the welding speed increased from 11.5 mm/s to 16.5 mm/s, the heat input decreased, and the amount of the precipitated phase increased. Intergranular corrosion and electrochemical experiments were carried out on the weld seam, and the corrosion resistance was tested. With increasing welding speed, the corrosion resistance of the weld decreased. The high potential of the precipitated phase decreased the corrosion resistance of the weld joint.     

TIG arc characteristics in different atmospheres (part 1)

Summary

The physical properties of gases such as density, thermal and electrical conductivity, as well as ionisation potential, determine to a great extent the operational characteristics of welding arcs. These properties may vary widely for different gases. As a result, arc voltage, heat output, mean radius, thermal profile, performance and other parameters which influence bead geometry (shape, width and penetration) depend on the chemical composition of the shielding gas. Rather complex physical models have been proposed to explain and quantify the effects of shielding gas chemical composition on welding arc performance. The influence of arc atmosphere may also be easily predicted by empirical methods. However, only changes in arc operational parameters and weld bead geometry due to variations in gas composition appear in the literature. This article presents an optical study of the TIG welding arc, based on a digital system of image capture and welding parameter recording, during arc operation. Variations in arc aspect, dimensions and electrical parameters were observed, and the results related to the physical properties of gases and mixtures used, as well as forecasts by theoretical models.     

Occurrence of bay area in submerged arc welds

Abstract

An experimental study has been carried out to evaluate the effect of submerged arc welding parameters on the formation of a bay area in the heat affected zone of bead on plate welds in ASTM A36 steel. It was observed that the formation of weld beads having a bay area is influenced by the heat distribution from the arc, which in turn is determined by the welding conditions. The effect of the welding parameters on the weld bead formation is discussed in terms of the arc operation modes and the resulting heat distributions.