Characterisation of plasma induced during high power fibre laser welding of stainless steel

Abstract

The objective of this research is to obtain a fundamental knowledge of generation behaviour and ionised state of a plume or plasma induced during bead on plate welding of a 20 mm thick type 304 stainless steel plate with a 10 kW fibre laser beam of 0˙9 MW mm^–2 power density, on the basis of 10 000 to 40 000 flames s^–1 high speed video observation and spectroscopic analysis. The high power fibre laser produced a partial penetration weld of 12 mm in depth at 50 mm s^–1 welding speed. According to the high speed observation pictures, the laser induced plume was repeatedly generated from a keyhole at the interval of about 0&dot5 ms period to reach 12 mm in maximum height. The spectroscopy indicated the line spectra of neutral atoms of alloying elements of type 304 such as iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and manganese (Mn). However, ionised spectra of alloying elements and line spectra of argon (Ar) neutral atom were not apparently detected under these welding conditions. Furthermore, the temperature and the ionisation degree of the laser induced plume were calculated to be approximately 6000 K and 0&dot02 respectively, by the Bolzman plots and Saha's equation. Consequently, the plume induced with the 10 kW fibre laser beam of the ultra high power density was judged to be weakly ionised plasma from these experimental results.     

Fibre laser welding of aluminium alloy

The objectives of this research are to investigate the effects of various welding conditions on penetration and defect formation, to clarify their welding phenomena and to develop the procedure of reduction of the defect. Fibre laser bead-on-plate welding was performed on several aluminium alloys, in particular A5083, at the power of 6 or 10 kW and several power densities from 0.4 kW/mm². It was found that the weld beads were narrower and deeper with an increase in the laser power density. For example, fully penetrated weld beads in 10 mm thick plates were produced at the laser power density of 640 kW/mm² and the welding speed of 10 m/min. However, convex–concave bead surfaces were formed. Moreover, in the case of the high power density, no porosity and many pores were present at high and low welding speeds, respectively. On the other hand, in the case of the ultra-high power density, few pores were generated in high speed welding. These reasons were interpreted by observing keyhole behaviour, bubble formation and the molten pool geometry during high power fibre laser welding with a high-speed video camera and microfocused X-ray transmission in situ observation method. Moreover, the porosity in the weld bead was reduced and prevented by the utilization of nitrogen gas instead of Ar gas, or the forward inclination angle of 40° (50° from the right angle) in Ar shielding gas.     

High quality welding of stainless steel with 10 kW high power fibre laser

Abstract

The objectives of this research are to investigate penetration characteristics, to clarify welding phenomena and to develop high quality welding procedures in bead on plate welding of type 304 austenitic stainless steel plates with a 10 kW fibre laser beam. The penetration depth reached 18 mm at the maximum at 5 mm s^?1. At 50 mm s^?1 or lower welding speeds, however, porosity was generated at any fibre laser spot diameter. On the other hand, at 100 mm s^?1 or higher welding speeds, underfilling and humping weld beads were formed under the conventionally and tightly focused conditions respectively. The generation of spatters was influenced mainly by a strong shear force of a laser induced plume and was greatly reduced by controlling direction of the plume blowing out of a keyhole inlet. The humping formation was dependent upon several dynamic or static factors, such as melt volume above the surface, strong melt flow to the rear molten pool on the top surface, solidification rate and narrow molten pool width and corresponding high surface tension. Its suppression was effective by producing a wider weld bead width under the defocused laser beam conditions or reduction of melt volume out of keyhole inlet under the full penetration welding conditions. Concerning porosity, X-ray transmission in situ observation images demonstrated that pores were formed not only from the tip of the keyhole but also at the middle part because of high power density. The keyhole behaviour was stabilised using a nitrogen shielding gas, resulting in porosity prevention. Consequently, to produce high quality welds in 10 kW high power fibre laser welding, the reduction procedures of welding defects were required on the basis of understanding their formation mechanism, and 10 kW fibre laser power could produce sound deeply penetrated welds of 18 mm depth in a nitrogen shielding gas.     

Factors controlling the magnesium weld morphology in deep penetration welding by a CO2 laser

In laser welding with power density beyond 10⁴ W · mm⁻², the formation of plasma cavities, commonly referred to as keyholes, leads to deep penetration welds with high aspect ratios. In this paper, the morphologies of keyhole welds produced with a 6 kW CW CO₂ laser on two die-cast magnesium alloys, AZ91 and AM50, are compared. It was found that the two magnesium alloys responded differently to laser welding. Though irregular weld cross-section profiles were consistently observed on each materials, bead dimensions often varied with the welding variables in contrasting ways. For both alloys, important characteristics of the weld beads such as depth, width, crown height (hump), and surface ripples were analyzed as a function of the welding parameters, most particularly the heat input. Results show that the use of heat input, a variable grouping two welding parameters into one, was often inadequate in characterizing the bead morphology. Several explanations are given, including base metal vaporization, but the process of bremsstralung absorption explains it well and rationalizes many observed characteristics of laser weld morphology.     

超高功率激光-电弧复合焊接特性分析

为了对超高功率激光-电弧复合焊接过程特性有深入的理解. 借助高速摄像,以焊接过程中羽辉和飞溅为主要研究对象,对比分析了激光功率从5 kW增加到30 kW时,激光热源与不同电弧热源复合,以及是否填丝对焊接特性的影响规律. 结果表明,激光功率增加,羽辉和飞溅面积的均值都呈增加趋势,两者的波动程度也呈上升趋势;冷丝的添加在降低焊缝熔深的同时使激光-MAG复合焊接过程中的稳定性变差;激光-TIG复合填丝焊接过程的稳定性明显优于另外两种焊接形式;高功率激光复合焊接时,高温羽辉对激光的散射和吸收作用会使熔深增加趋势放缓.     

PA position full penetration high power laser beam welding of up to 30 mm thick AlMg3 plates using electromagnetic weld pool support

Abstract

Full penetration 15 kW Yb fibre laser butt welding of thick AlMg3 (AW 5754) plates was performed in PA position. A contactless inductive electromagnetic weld pool support system was used to prevent gravity dropout of the melt. The welding speed needed to achieve 20 mm penetration was ～0·5 m min^?1. An ac power supply of ～244 W at 460 Hz was necessary to completely suppress gravity dropout of the melt and eliminate sagging of the weld pool root side surface. The oscillating magnetic field can suppress the Marangoni convection in the lower part of the weld pool. The system was also successfully used in the full penetration welding of 30 mm thick AlMg3 plates.     

Weldability of 1.6 mm thick aluminium alloy 5182 sheet by single and dual beam Nd: YAG laser welding

Abstract

The weldability of 1.6 mm thick 5182 Al–Mg alloy sheet by the single- and dual-beam Nd:YAG laser welding processes has been examined. Bead-on-plate welds were made using total laser powers from 2.5 to 6 kW, dual-beam lead/lag laser beam power ratios ranging from 3:2 to 2:3 and travel speeds from 4 to 15 m min^-1. The effects of focal position and shielding gas conditions on weld quality were also investigated. Whereas full penetration laser welds could be made using the 3 kW single-beam laser welder at speeds up to 15 m min^-1, the underbead surface was always very rough with undercutting and numerous projections or spikes of solidified ejected metal. This 'spikey' underbead surface geometry was attributed to the effects of the high vapour pressure Mg in the alloy on the keyhole dynamics. The undesirable 'spikey' underbead geometry was unaffected by changes in focal position, shielding gas parameters or other single-beam welding process parameters. Most full penetration dual-beam laser welds exhibited either blow-through porosity at low welding speeds (4–6 m min^-1) or unacceptable 'spikey' underbead surface quality at increased welding speeds up to 13.5 m min^-1. Radiography revealed significant occluded porosity within borderline or partial penetration welds. This was thought to be caused by significant keyhole instability that exists under these welding conditions. A limited range of dual-beam laser process conditions was found that produced sound, pore-free laser welds with good top and underbead surface quality. Acceptable welds were produced at welding speeds of 6 to 7.5 m min^-1 using total laser powers of 4.5–5 kW, but only when the lead laser beam power was greater than or equal to the lagging beam power. The improved underbead quality was attributed to the effect of the second lagging laser beam on keyhole stability, venting of the high vapour pressure Mg from the keyhole and solidification of the underbead weld metal during full penetration dual-beam laser welding.     

Welding of high thicknesses using a fibre optic laser up to 30 kW

The industrial applications of high-power fibre optic lasers include welding, 2D and 3D cutting, remote cutting and welding, brazing and surface treatments. The availability of fibre optic lasers with power outputs in excess of 10 kW might allow the development of novel fields of application in the welding of high thickness pieces: shipbuilding and offshore industries, pipe and cable manufacture and other heavy industry sectors. Carrying the beam by fibre optics allows high flexibility, even for the production of very large pieces, such as in the shipbuilding sector. This study describes the laser welding of high thickness pieces using a 30 kW laser and a 200 μm diameter fibre. On the one hand, such lasers allow a weld penetration depth of over 30 mm in a single pass, and very high process speeds for thinner materials on the other. Combining lasers with conventional arc welding techniques (hybrid welding) allows further optimization of weld quality and makes it possible to weld butt joints with a ‘gap’ of up to 1 mm. This paper presents the most recent results from very high-power fibre optic laser welding along with new applications in the manufacturing sector.     

Effect of Travel Speed and Beam Focus on Porosity in Alloy 690 Laser Welds

Advances in laser welding technology, including fiber optic delivery and high power density, are increasing the applicability of this joining technique. The inherent benefits of laser welding include small heat-affected zones, minimal distortion, and limited susceptibility to cracking. These advantages are of special interest to next-generation nuclear power systems where welding solute-rich alloys is expected to increase. Alloy 690 (A690) is an advanced corrosion-resistant structural material used in many replacement components and in construction of new commercial power plants. However, the application of A690 is hindered by its difficult weldability using conventional arc welding, and laser welding is a promising alternate. This work studies the effects of travel speed and beam focus on porosity formation in partial penetration, autogenous A690 laser welds. Porosity has been characterized by light optical microscopy and x-ray computed tomography to quantify its percent volume in the welds. This work describes the tradeoff between weld penetration and defect density as a function of beam defocus and travel speed. Additionally, the role of shield gas in porosity formation is discussed to provide a mitigation strategy for A690 laser welding. A process map is provided that shows the optimal combinations of travel speed and beam defocus to minimize porosity and maximize weld penetration at a laser power of 4?kW.     

Coaxial hybrid process of hollow cathode TIG and YAG laser welding

To make progress in laser-arc hybrid welding, especially when applied to thick steel plate, it is essential to get the remarkable synergic effect of deep penetration. It is suggested that the effective process is combining hollow cathode TIG with high beam quality laser welding. Penetration of hollow TIG/YAG hybrid welding was investigated by numerical analysis. A keyhole surface model taking into account the laser beam parameter product (BPP) was developed. The calculated keyhole surface profiles of coaxial hybrid welding are wider and deeper than that of YAG laser welding alone. As a result, single-pass butt welding of 20 mm thickness steel plate was achieved under the conditions of BPP = 0.9 mm mrad at laser power 1.8 kW. To confirm numerical results, coaxial hybrid welding tests with a hollow cathode TIG was conducted. The welding penetration was about two times as deep as a YAG laser alone. It was found that coaxial hybrid welding with hollow TIG/YAG had a large synergic effect.     

CO2激光焊接的同轴检测与熔透控制(Ⅱ)熔透状态同轴光信号的频域分析

利用CO2激光深熔焊等离子体光信号的同轴检测系统,提出了频谱重心的概念井以此来分析等离子体光信号的频谱特性,研究了平扳焊接时对应适度熔透状态时同轴光信号的顿域特征。结果表明,随激光功率增加或焊接速度减小,当焊接熔透状态从“适度熔透(小孔透)”变化到“仅熔池透”时对应2～6kHz段频谱重心位置向上(高额)跳变。     

Integration of three high power Nd–YAG lasers to one beam and its application in stainless steel welding

Abstract

An Nd–YAG laser processing system has been developed in which the beams of three Nd–YAG lasers (two 2·0 kW continuous wave oscillators and one 1·5 kW pulsed oscillator) were combined at the input end of a single optical fibre and transmitted through the optical fibre. The power distribution of the integrated beam, even at the defocused point of the processing optics, was not split between the three beams. Complex pulse waveform control was therefore possible. The effect of the waveforms on penetration depth was examined. Penetration depth for the rectangular modulated laser beam superimposed on the pulse laser beam with a delay was deeper than that for the rectangular modulated laser beam and the continuous laser beam, even under the same average power condition. The effective delay was 1–3 ms. Deepest penetration depth for the rectangular modulated laser beam superimposed on the pulse laser beam was 1·7 times that for the continuous laser beam.     

Correlation between weld formation and processing parameters in CO2 laser welding of steels

Abstract

Laser welding, which has undergone rapid development in the past few decades, is one of the most important applications in laser materials processing. Although some general data are available, precise welding parameters are equipment specific. In the present study, a series of autogenous laser welds on mild and stainless steels has been investigated, using a Trumpf 3·0 kW CO² laser system, to establish welding parameter windows. The correlation between laser power, welding speed, and weld bead profile for bead on plate welding has been obtained. For a constant laser power, penetration depth reaches a stable value as welding speed exceeds 11 000–13 000 mm min^-1. This value is defined as the penetration threshold. Lower welding speed produces deeper penetration. However, under such conditions, the unstable keyhole and weld pool could result in undercut and porosity. The maximum penetration achievable for sound welds on both mild steel and stainless steel was investigated. The correlation between penetration threshold and power level was also established. The parameter windows established for autogenous welds can be adopted effectively on butt jointsif welding speed is reduced by 25%.     

Power attenuation and focus shift of solid state laser beam caused by laser-induced plume

Currently, remote laser welding using solid-sate lasers is widespread in industry. Meanwhile, it is well known that the laser-induced plume blown up from the processing point affects penetration in laser welding, through the attenuation and the refraction of the laser beam. These phenomena in carbon dioxide laser welding have been investigated well and it is widely recognized that using the shielding gas flow to blow away the laser-induced plume is very important. However, in remote laser welding it is not easy to maintain the shielding gas flow to the processing point. By the way, these phenomena depend on the wavelength of the laser. So, quantitative knowledge of the attenuation and refraction of the solid state laser beam are necessary in achieving stable penetration in remote laser welding with this laser. This study was made to determine the attenuation coefficient and the amount of the effective focus shift caused by refraction of the laser beam in the plume, through melt run experiments with a YAG laser. The attenuation coefficient of the laser beam was estimated to be 0.00090 mm^?1 from the dependence of the cross-sectional area of weld metal on the laser power and the plume length. This value is about one twentieth of the attenuation coefficient of a carbon dioxide laser beam at welding found in the literature. The amount of focus shift was estimated to be 0.67 mm per 100 mm plume length, from the dependency of penetration depth on the defocusing distance and the plume length. Comparing the 3 mm of plume length, this value is centesimal of the estimated value by Beck et al. [The effect of plasma formation on beam focusing in deep penetration welding with CO₂ lasers. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 1995;28:2430–2442] in CO₂ laser welding. Therefore, a solid-state laser such as a YAG laser is considered to be a suitable laser source for remote laser welding.     

常压/真空环境激光焊接焊缝成形特性及残余应力与变形对比

在高功率激光焊接中,采用增大激光功率的方法以获得更大熔深时,面临焊接过程稳定性差、焊接缺陷频发等问题,目前国内外普遍认为真空激光焊接是解决以上问题的有效手段. 文中采用工艺试验和数值模拟的方法,研究了常压和真空环境下中厚度全熔透激光焊接在焊缝成形及残余应力与变形分布的差异. 结果表明,降低环境压力可显著增加激光焊接熔透深度,真空环境可以将常压环境10 mm全熔透激光焊接所需激光功率从10 kW降低到6 kW,并获得更好的焊接质量. 常压环境和真空环境下,全熔透激光焊接工件展现出类似的横向残余应力、纵向残余应力和变形分布规律,但由于真空环境下热输入较低,焊缝深宽比大,焊后残余应力的峰值和变形程度均显著小于常压环境.     

Defect-free joining of zinc-coated steels by bifocal hybrid laser welding

Laser welding of zinc-coated steels in an overlap setup is prone to weld defects and seam expulsion reducing in particular the properties in mechanical loading and in general the deployability of such weldments in industry. Several laser welding process technologies failed to created defect-free welds in zinc-coated steels. This paper renders the welding of zinc-coated steels by the novel technology of bifocal hybrid laser welding. The zinc-coated steels under consideration are DX56D + Z, DC04 + ZE, and HXT700D. The bifocal hybrid laser system is realised by combining an Nd:YAG laser with a high power diode laser, both of 3 kW maximum output power. The beam parameter product (BPP) of the employed Nd:YAG laser of 25 mm mrad translates with an optical system of focal length f = 150 mm into a circular focus of diameter 0.45 mm, whereas the BPP of the HPDL of 85 mm × 200 mm mrad can achieve a rectangular focus of 0.9 mm × 3.7 mm. The optical system allows the respective focal plane and relative position of the foci to be independently vertically and horizontally positioned. This paper presents research into the causes of instabilities in laser welding of zinc-coated steels. Experimental evidence is considered and presented to establish the need for an empirical process model for stable laser welding of zinc-coated steels. The increase of process robustness is discussed.     

铝合金双光束激光焊接过程稳定性分析

从成形、气孔、熔深的波动、激光匙孔、光致等离子体、飞溅等方面研究了铝合金高功率单光束激光和双光束激光焊接过程的稳定性。结果表明,在相同工艺参数下,双光束激光焊缝表面成形明显优于单光束,熔深的波动较单光束小;在相同工艺参数及相同熔深条件下,双光束焊缝气孔率较单光束小,小孔及等离子体的波动周期较单光束长,面积波动变异系数较单光束小,飞溅较单光束更加细小均匀。     

K418与42CrMo异种金属激光焊接接头组织与力学性能

试验研究了额定功率为3 kW的连续波Nd:YAG激光焊接热输入对激光焊接K418与42CrMo异种金属焊缝形貌的影响.通过光学显微镜、扫描电镜、能谱分析仪、硬度仪、万能试验机及X衍射对激光焊接K418与42CrMo异种金属焊缝接头组织、元素分布、相组成及接头的力学性能进行分析.结果表明,在焊接热输入恒定的条件下,高功率、高焊速的匙孔焊接比低功率、低焊速的热传导焊接更能增加焊缝熔深.通过扫描电镜在焊缝区域观察到了颗粒状物和针状物,能谱分析表明,颗粒状物Nb,Ti,Mo元素聚集,Fe,Ni元素减少;针状物Ti,Nb元素聚集.K418与42CrMo异种金属激光焊接工艺参数优化后的焊缝抗拉强度高于42CrMo母材.     

光束摆动法减小激光焊接气孔倾向

针对激光深熔焊过程中易出现的气孔问题,作者提出光束摆动激光焊接减小气孔倾向的工艺。利用3kW快轴流CO2激光器分别对激光焊接过程中可能出现的氮气孔和氩气孔进行了试验研究。结果表明,光束摆动激光焊接对氮气孔有显著的消除效果,随着摆动频率的增加,气孔急剧减少,并且在摆动幅度仅为0．5mm的情况下,就可以起到消除气孔的效果;光束摆动激光焊接对于抑制氩气孔也有一定作用,摆动频率越大,摆动幅度越大,对熔池的搅拌越大,越有利于气泡的逸出,焊缝中氩气孔越少。     

激光/等离子电弧复合热源能量参数对钛合金焊缝成形的影响

在对钛合金激光/等离子电弧复合焊与单一激光焊的焊缝成形进行比较的基础上,研究了激光在复合等离子电弧后主要焊接工艺参数对焊缝成形的影响.结果表明,随激光功率增大和焊接速度降低,复合焊与单一激光焊焊缝的横截面形貌均由钉形向近X形转变.与单一激光焊相比,复合焊焊缝的余高和咬边较大.激光/等离子电弧"协同效应"随激光功率和焊接速度变化而不同,从而影响复合焊焊缝的熔宽和熔宽比.随焊接电流从零增大到60 A,焊缝熔宽略有增大,而焊缝熔宽比基本保持不变.