Advances in the industrial production of halal and kosher red meat

The worldwide volume and value of trade in halal and kosher meat and co-products are huge. Muslim countries alone consumed meat estimated to be worth USD 57.2 billion in 2008. The halal and kosher principles that govern the production of red meat have many similarities, as well as some fundamental differences. Perhaps the most significant difference is that at the time of slaughter, the animal needs only to be alive to meet the minimum halal requirement, but must be both alive and conscious for kosher. It is for this reason that reversible pre-slaughter stunning is acceptable only for halal meat, although a compromise form of post-slaughter stunning is now considered kosher in some countries. Extensive research on animal physiology and welfare has characterised and optimised the methods for stunning livestock, and enabled advancement in associated technologies. This forms the basis for harmonising the religious and secular requirements for the protection of animal welfare at slaughter. These technologies and the associated processing practices for the industrial production of halal and kosher meat are reviewed in this paper.     

Influence of gas stunning and halal slaughter (no stunning) on rabbits welfare indicators and meat quality

This study assessed the effect of gas stunning which has not been conducted until now in comparison with slaughter without stunning on the welfare and meat quality of rabbits. Eighty male New Zealand White rabbits were divided into two groups of 40 animals and subjected to either halal slaughter without stunning (HS) or gas stunning using 61.4% CO₂, 20.3% oxygen and 18.3 % nitrogen (GS). Analysis of the sticking blood revealed that both slaughter procedures caused a substantial increase in the levels of catecholamines, hypercalcemia, hyperglycemia, lactic acidemia and an increase in enzyme activities. The ultimate pH of the Longissimus lumborum muscle did not differ between treatments. GS exhibited higher lightness and cooking loss, and lower glycogen and MFI than HS. This indicates that both GS and HS can be significant stressors although the amount of stress may be below the threshold to negatively affect rabbit meat quality.     

Blood in the respiratory tract during slaughter with and without stunning in cattle

Bovine respiratory tracts were examined for blood following shechita without stunning, halal slaughter without stunning, and captive bolt stunning with sticking. In all three methods the cattle were in the upright (standing) position at the start of bleeding. Those that had not been stunned continued to breathe during the early part of bleeding whilst those that were stunned were not breathing. Nineteen percent of the shechita, 58% of the halal and 21% of the stunned plus stuck cattle had blood lining the inner aspect of the trachea. Thirty six percent, 69% and 31% had blood in the upper bronchi, respectively. Ten percent, 19% and 0% had fine bright red blood-tinged foam in the trachea, respectively. It was concluded that concerns about suffering from airway irritation by blood could apply in animals that are either not stunned before slaughter or do not lose consciousness rapidly whilst blood is present in the respiratory tract.     

不同屠宰方式对蒙古羊应激及羊肉食用品质的影响

以内蒙古蒙古羊为研究对象,对比分析抹脖子屠宰、掏心式屠宰及电击晕屠宰对蒙古羊应激及羊肉食用品质的影响,利用生化分析仪等仪器对蒙古羊血液指标及食用品质进行测定。结果表明：经电击晕后屠宰,肉羊血液中乳酸含量、皮质醇含量、乳酸脱氢酶活性及肌酸激酶活性显著低于其他2 种方式,肉羊在屠宰过程中应激反应也最小;相比于抹脖子及掏心式屠宰2 组,电击晕组羊肉的蒸煮损失率较低,而嫩度高于抹脖子组,且与掏心组差异不显著,红度值（a*）高于上述2 组,且电击晕组羊肉的硫代巴比妥酸反应物值最低;营养方面,电击晕及掏心式屠宰可提高羊肉中不饱和脂肪酸的含量。因此,从肉羊屠宰食用品质及经济效益等方面比较,电击晕屠宰方式可以减小肉羊应激反应,提高肉羊屠宰企业的经济效益,符合动物福利屠宰要求。     

Muslim consumer trust in halal meat status and control in Belgium

This paper focuses on public trust of Belgian Muslims in information sources of halal meat and their confidence in key actors and institutions for monitoring and controlling the halal meat chain. Cross-sectional consumer data were collected through a survey with 367 Muslims during the summer of 2006 in Belgium. Findings reveal that Islamic institutions and especially the Islamic butcher receive in general most confidence for monitoring and controlling the halal status of meat, and for communicating about halal meat. However, based on Muslims' confidence, four distinct market segments were identified: indifferent (29.1%), concerned (9.7%), confident (33.1%) and Islamic idealist (26.7%). These segments differ significantly with respect to trust in information sources and institutions, health and safety perception of halal meat, perceived halal meat consumption barriers, behavioural variables (halal meat consumption frequency and place of purchase), and socio-cultural (acculturation and self-identity) and individual characteristics. Indifferent consumers are rather undecided about who should monitor the halal status of meat, and they are most open to purchasing halal meat in the supermarket. Concerned Muslim consumers display higher confidence in Belgian than in Islamic institutions, which associates with perceiving a lack of information, poor hygiene and safety concern as barriers to purchasing halal meat. Confident consumers display a clear preference for Islamic institutions to monitor and communicate about halal. Islamic idealists, who are typified by younger age, second generation and high Muslim self-identity, differ from the confident consumers through their very low confidence in local Belgian sources and institutions.     

Credence quality coordination and consumers' willingness-to-pay for certified halal labelled meat

This paper reports on halal credence quality coordination and Muslim consumers' willingness to buy and pay for certified halal labelled meat at the supermarket and the Islamic butcher. Cross-sectional data were collected through a survey with 202 Muslim consumers in Belgium. Findings indicate that more acculturated and female consumers are more in favour of purchasing certified halal labelled meat in a supermarket. Important conditions are that supermarkets can provide a guarantee of separating halal from non-halal meat and of the organisation of adequate verification and control. Results further show that more Muslim consumers are willing to pay a price premium (of 13% on average) for halal labelled meat at the Islamic butcher shop than at the supermarket. The higher the importance attached to a certified halal label and the more distrust in the actual halal meat status, the higher the likelihood that a Muslim consumer is willing to pay a higher price for certified halal labelled meat at the Islamic butcher shop. Gender and generation determine the actual premium Muslim consumers are willing to pay.     

Animal welfare at markets and during transport and slaughter

This review highlights some recent developments in our understanding of stress and physical injuries that occur before and during transport to slaughter, during handling at livestock markets, and at the time animals are put-up for slaughter within abattoirs. Stress in pigs during transfer to the stunning point within the abattoir has important effects on meat quality, and there is growing evidence that strenuous exercise or CO(2) stunning can contribute to oxidative rancidity in pigs, poultry and fish. In the EU, putting cattle through a crush in order to check that their eartag numbers correspond to their passport numbers is imposing additional stress, and there are reports that it is leading to greater hide contamination with Escherichia coli O157. Recent developments in stunning and slaughter include a better understanding of the causes of variation in captive bolt gun performance, the effectiveness of poll instead of frontal shooting in water buffalo, the prevalence of false aneurysms in carotid arteries during shechita and halal slaughter, and the stress effects of CO(2) stunning in fish. Stunning pigs with 90% CO(2) leads to less PSE meat than 80% CO(2). There have been concerns about the physical activity that cattle show following electrical stunning with an electrically induced cardiac arrest, and with electrical stunning using DC waveforms in broiler chickens. There is also growing concern about the hygiene problems that exist in wet markets, where animals are slaughtered alongside meat that is on display to customers.     

Animal welfare and society concerns finding the missing link

Young adults in developed countries are distanced from agriculture and the meat industry needs to do a better job of communicating with them. A major welfare concern is slaughter without stunning. Other concerns, such as poor stunning or high levels of bruising, can be easily corrected by management who is committed to maintaining high standards. Another concern is biological system overload, occurring when animals are bred for more productivity. Researchers and industry need to determine optimum production levels instead of maximums. Retailers are major drivers of animal welfare standards enforcement and they respond to pressure from both activists and consumers.     

Welfare of animals at slaughter and killing: a new regulation on the protection of animals at the time of killing

Recently, the European Commission (EC) has published a proposal for a Council Regulation on the protection of animals at the time of killing. The proposed regulation will enhance the technical requirements of Directive 93/119/EC on the protection of animals at the time of slaughter or killing, which have not been amended since 1993. The main specific problems identified with the present EU legislation are the lack of harmonized methodology for new stunning methods, the lack of clear responsibilities for operators on animal welfare, the insufficient competence of personnel handling animals and insufficient conditions for the welfare of animals during killing for disease control purposes. The adoption of the “Hygiene Regulation Package”, which emphasizes the responsibilities of the food business operators on food safety, has also changed the legal environment for slaughterhouses. Furthermore, the first Community Action Plan on the Protection and Welfare of Animals, adopted by the EC in 2006, introduced new concepts such as the welfare indicators and the need for further research programs and centres of reference on animal welfare. Also, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) adopted two scientific opinions in 2004 and 2006 on the different stunning and killing methods to be used for main farm species either for slaughter for human consumption or for disease control purposes. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) in 2005 also adopted two international guidelines on the welfare of animals at slaughter. After presenting a picture of situation of meat sector in EU, the Author provides a broad overview on the regulatory situation and considers the legislative and scientific perspectives that lead the EC to draft new rules in this regard.     

Effect of different carbon dioxide concentrations and exposure times in stunning of slaughter pigs: Impact on animal welfare and meat quality

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of different slaughter procedures on animal welfare and meat quality. Before slaughter in a dip-lift, one-gondola system, 460 pigs were exposed to an atmosphere containing either 80% or 90% CO(2) for 70 or 100s, and at the longer exposure time with stun-to-stick intervals of either 25-35 or 40-50s. Clinical parameters (reflexes, catecholamines and lactate) showed deficiencies in animal welfare after stunning with 80% CO(2) for 70 and 100s, with an interval of 40-50s, and with 90% CO(2) for 70s. Stunning with 80% CO(2) for 70 or 100s always induced stress, as indicated by higher lactate levels, and reduced meat quality as indicated by low pH(24) values (5.4 in Musculus longissimus and 5.5 in Musculus semimembranosus) and low impedance (Py(24)) values, especially in combination with the longer stun-to-stick interval (40-50s). Stunning with 80% or 90% CO(2) in a dip-lift system was found to be acceptable for animal welfare (percentage of clinical reflexes) only in combination with the longer exposure time of 100s and the shorter stun-to-stick times of 25-35s. When 90% CO(2) was used, the longer stun-to-stick interval of 40-50s also gave results acceptable with regard to animal welfare. Generally, in comparison to 80% CO(2) stunning meat quality was superior (higher pH(24) and Py(24) values) after stunning with 90% CO(2).     

False aneurysms in carotid arteries of cattle and water buffalo during shechita and halal slaughter

It has previously been shown that the cattle brain is supplied with blood via a basi-occipital plexus, in addition to branches from the carotid and basilar arteries. In addition it has been shown during conventional stunning and slaughter that the carotid arteries in cattle can develop false aneurysms at their severed ends and this can curtail exsanguination. This investigation examined whether false aneurysms can occur during religious slaughter, and during bleeding following electrical stunning that simultaneously induced a cardiac arrest. The prevalence of large (>3 cm outer diameter) false aneurysms in cattle carotid arteries was 10% for both shechita and halal slaughter. The prevalence of animals with bilateral false aneurysms (at least 2 cm in one artery and at least 3 cm diameter in the opposite artery) was 7% and 8% for shechita and halal slaughter, respectively. No false aneurysms occurred during bleeding in cattle that were electrically stunned and simultaneously developed a cardiac arrest. The combination of false aneurysms and collateral routes to the brain present a risk of sustained consciousness during religious slaughter in cattle.     

Religious slaughter: Evaluation of current practices in selected countries

As part of the project “Religious slaughter (DIALREL): improving knowledge and expertise through dialogue and debate on issues of welfare, legislation and socio-economic aspects”, this paper discusses an evaluation of current practices during Halal and Shechita slaughter in cattle, sheep, goats and poultry. During religious slaughter, animals are killed with and without stunning by a transverse incision across the neck that is cutting the skin, muscles (brachiocephalic, sternocephalic, sternohyoid, and sternothyroid), trachea, esophagus, carotid arteries, jugular veins and the major, superficial and deep nerves of the cervical plexus. In this report, the restraint methods, stunning, neck cutting, exsanguination, slaughter techniques and postcut handling in the abattoir were assessed for religious slaughter. Information about the procedures used during religious slaughter in Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, the UK, Turkey and Australia was collected by means of spot visits to abattoirs. To standardize the information gathered during the spot visits three guidelines were designed, one for each species, and translated into the national languages of the countries involved. The document included questions on the handling and restraint methods (stunning, neck cutting/exsanguination/slaughter techniques and postcut handling performed under religious practices) and for pain and distress of the animal during the restraint, neck cutting and induction to death in each abattoir. Results showed differences in the time from restraining to stun and to cut in the neck cutting procedures and in the time from cut to death.     

Behavioural and physiological reactions of cattle in a commercial abattoir: relationships with organisational aspects of the abattoir and animal characteristics

Behavioural, physiological and metabolic reactions of cattle to handling and slaughter procedures were evaluated in a commercial abattoir, from arrival until slaughter. Different genders or breeds were not subjected to the same procedures due to abattoir equipment or organisational aspects of the abattoir. Reactions to similar slaughter procedures varied according to animal characteristics and could have consequences for subsequent handling procedures. Factors that appeared to cause handling problems and vocalisation were excessive pressure during restraint, and distractions in the corridor such as noise, darkness, seeing people and activity. Post-mortem muscle metabolism depended on slaughter procedures. Following stunning or halal slaughter, some animals showed head rising movements despite the abolition of the corneal reflex, suggesting that head rising is not always indicative of consciousness. Overall, this study presents concrete data on how different types of cattle may react to slaughter procedures with a direct interest for the abattoir itself but also for scientific purposes.     

Effect of electrical stunning or sticking without stunning on the microstructure of zousoon, a Chinese semi-dry pork product

The microstructure of muscle fibers from pigs killed following electrical stunning was compared to that from pigs killed after tying-resting and sticking. Examination of the muscle fibers demonstrated that electrical stunning resulted in contracture bands that caused tearing and fragmentation of the myofibers/myofibrils. On the other hand, tying-resting and sticking was not accompanied by microstructural fragmentation of the muscle fibers. Results indicate that electrical stunning of hogs causes fragmentation and breakage of the muscle fibers so that the meat is not suitable for production of Zousoon-a semi-dry shredded Chinese pork product and other similar items prepared from prerigor pig muscle. Heating and drying intensify the deteachment of the myofibrils from the muscle fiber bundles, which is caused mainly by electrical stunning or stimulation and improper conditioning following slaughter. The combined effects of electrical stunning and heating-drying appear to be responsible for the fragmentation of the muscle fibers/myofibrils and contribute to the unsuitability of prerigor muscle from electrically stunned pigs for use in the production of Zousoon. Since sticking of pigs without stunning does not meet humane slaughter standards, alternative animal welfare slaughter procedures should be examined from the standpoint of their usefulness in producing Zousoon.     

Halal and kosher slaughter methods and meat quality: A review

There are many slaughter procedures that religions and cultures use around the world. The two that are commercially relevant are the halal and kosher methods practiced by Muslims and Jews respectively. The global trade in red meat and poultry produced using these two methods is substantial, thus the importance of the quality of the meat produced using the methods. Halal and kosher slaughter per se should not affect meat quality more than their industrial equivalents, however, some of their associated pre- and post-slaughter processes do. For instance, the slow decline in blood pressure following a halal pre-slaughter head-only stun and neck cut causes blood splash (ecchymosis) in a range of muscles and organs of slaughtered livestock. Other quality concerns include bruising, hemorrhages, skin discoloration and broken bones particularly in poultry. In addition to these conventional quality issues, the “spiritual quality” of the meat can also be affected when the halal and kosher religious requirements are not fully met during the slaughter process. The nature, causes, importance and mitigations of these and other quality issues related to halal and kosher slaughtering and meat production using these methods are the subjects of this review.     

Arrested blood flow during false aneurysm formation in the carotid arteries of cattle slaughtered with and without stunning

The time to onset of arrested blood flow and the size of false aneurysms in the severed carotid arteries were assessed in 126 cattle during halal slaughter without stunning. Thirty six cattle (29%) showed early arrest of blood flow. In 6%, both the left and right carotid arteries in the same animal stopped bleeding before 60 s had elapsed following the neck cut. The time to early arrested blood flow was on average 21 s, and this was accompanied by enlargement with false aneurysms which occluded the arteries. In the arteries which were still bleeding at 60 s after the neck was cut the artery size was normal. Based on comparative data from different slaughter premises it appeared that making the cut in the neck at the first cervical vertebra instead of the second to fourth cervical vertebrae reduced the frequency of false aneurysm formation and early arrested blood flow. This was confirmed in a separate controlled trial where 100 cattle were stunned with a captive bolt and the arteries were examined following neck cutting at either the C1 or C3 positions.     

电击晕处理对肉鸽屠宰应激及宰后鸽肉品质的影响

为探究电击晕处理对肉鸽屠宰应激和宰后鸽肉品质的影响，本实验选取相同饲养条件下日龄为28 d的肉鸽，以击晕电压0 V为对照组，通过测定血液生化指标和肌肉理化指标，分析不同击晕电压(50～90 V)对肉鸽应激反应和宰后胴体品质的变化。结果表明：电击晕处理组肉鸽屠宰后血液中肌酸激酶(creatine kinase,CK)、促肾上腺皮质激素(adrenocorticotropic hormone,ACTH)和乳酸脱氢酶(lactate dehydrogenase,LDH)水平与对照组相比整体上均有一定程度的下降，在击晕电压60 V时总体达到最低水平；血液中皮质酮激素质量浓度随着击晕电压(0～90 V)的增大先降低后增加，在电压超过70 V时高于对照组，说明70 V以上的电击晕处理会增加肉鸽的屠宰应激水平；电击晕处理对宰后鸽胸肉的pH值影响不显著，与对照组相比，宰后24 h鸽胸肉亮度(L^*值)略有降低而红度(a^*值)增大，60～70 V电压处理组鸽肉的滴水损失率、蒸煮损失率及剪切力均保持在较低水平，此时鸽肉的保水性和嫩度相对较好。综上，60～70 V的...     

The effect of the sticking method on the welfare of slaughter pigs

A project was undertaken to investigate the causes of inadequate sticking encountered during a survey of pig abattoirs. The results of the investigation identified the length of the sticking (exsanguination) wound as a major contributor to the problem. Experimental abattoir trials conducted on slaughter pigs comparing two sticking lengths indicated that the rate of bleed out was delayed with short sticking wounds. In addition, information about the identity of blood vessels severed following sticking was obtained. The results indicate that following head-only electrical stunning, a relatively long sticking wound should provide better welfare in slaughter pigs. The study has also highlighted the health and safety problems for the operatives as well as the welfare concerns associated with manual application of electrical stunning.     

Consumer willingness to pay for beef meat in a developing country: The effect of information regarding country of origin,price and animal handling prior to slaughter

Considering the importance that animal welfare has attained in developed countries, a personal interview of 770 regular meat buyers in the Bio-Bio and Araucanía regions of Chile was conducted to determine the importance of information regarding animal treatment prior to slaughter in the decision-making process when buying beef, to discover the willingness to pay more for this attribute and to distinguish different buyer segments. Using a conjoint analysis design, those surveyed were asked to put eight products in order according to their preference, given the following alternatives: domestic or imported beef, with or without information on animal treatment prior to slaughter and two price options. Origin and information regarding animal treatment were more important than price. Animal welfare is perceived as a desirable condition, but consumers are not willing to pay significantly more when buying meat in order to gain information about animal handling. Through a cluster analysis, four segments were distinguished in each region, with consumers who consider origin as the most important attribute predominating.