Effect of the Addition of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Flour on the In Vitro Digestibility of Starch and Undigestible Carbohydrates in Spaghetti

Abstract: Spaghetti is considered to be a slowly digestible starch food, a feature ruled by the particular physical properties of the product. Several studies have been reported to increase nutritional value of spaghetti, using legumes. We have studied the addition of common bean flour on the starch in vitro digestibility. Spaghetti was prepared with semolina and different concentrations of common bean flour (0%, 15%, 30%, and 45%, w/w). Proximate analysis, optimal cooking time, and cooking loss were estimated in crude spaghetti. Total, available, and resistant starches, indigestible fractions, and in vitro starch hydrolysis kinetics were accomplished in cooked spaghetti. Pasta with 30% and 45% of common bean flour showed higher values of protein. Particularly, the lowest cooking time was observed for composite spaghetti with 45% of common bean flour. There was a significant increase in cooking loss when common bean flour in the composite was added. Composite spaghetti samples with increasing common bean flour showed decreasing values of total starch but an important increase in the resistant starch (RS) level and indigestible insoluble fraction values. Plain pasta made with semolina showed the highest enzymatic hydrolysis rate, which decreased when common bean flour was added to the spaghetti. Spaghetti with a higher level of common bean flour was more slowly available, which may have positive implications for human health.     

Technological properties and non-enzymatic browning of white lupin protein enriched spaghetti

Spaghetti was prepared by replacing semolina with different amounts of lupin protein, in order to increase the protein content. A detailed investigation of the rheological properties of the dough and the cooking quality of pasta was performed in comparison to standard semolina spaghetti. Moreover, the effect of the addition of lupin protein on non-enzymatic browning was evaluated by measuring ε-furoylmethyllysine (furosine) and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde (HMF), which are considered useful indices of semolina quality and pasta processing conditions. Dried spaghetti fortified with 5% of lupin protein isolate has a colour and rheological features comparable with the semolina sample and also the behaviour during cooking results to be satisfactory. As far as the thermal damage is concerned, the furosine values of fortified spaghetti differ only marginally from standard pasta and the percentage lysine loss is quite small (ranging from 12.1% to 15.7%).     

SEMOLINA AND HYDRATION LEVEL DURING EXTRUSION AFFECT QUALITY OF FRESH PASTA CONTAINING FLAXSEED FLOUR

Flaxseed ( Linum usitatissimum L.) is an emerging food ingredient because of its several health benefits. Research was conducted to determine the effects of semolina, hydration level during extrusion and flaxseed flour concentration on the physical and cooking characteristics of freshly extruded pasta. The appearance of fresh pasta reflected the appearance of the ingredients. Fresh pasta became darker and redder as flaxseed flour concentration increased. Flaxseed flour did not affect cooking loss or water absorption during cooking of fresh pasta. However, flaxseed flour reduced the cooked firmness of fresh pasta by decreasing the dough strength. The cooked firmness of fresh pasta containing flaxseed flour was improved by using a semolina that makes a strong dough rather than a weak dough, and by extruding at a low (29%) compared to high (31%) hydration level.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Research results reported in this article would be useful in the development of a processing protocol for fresh pasta containing flaxseed flour and possibly other nontraditional ingredients. The results provide support for the need to use a strong dough-forming semolina and to extrude the semolina–flaxseed flour mixture at a low hydration level (29%) in order to produce a fresh pasta that has desirable cooking/cooked properties.     

Effect of semolina replacement with a raw:popped amaranth flour blend on cooking quality and texture of pasta

The replacement of semolina (SEM) with raw:popped (90:10) amaranth flour blend (AFB) in pasta making at 25, 50, 75, and 100 g/100 g levels (flour basis, 14 g of water/100 g) was carried out to evaluate the effects on cooking quality and texture of the supplemented pasta samples. Significant differences on cooking quality characteristics and texture of the pasta samples were observed. The pasta solid loss increased, weight gain and firmness decreased as the AFB level increased. The semolina pasta showed the lowest solid loss (7 g/100 g) and the highest weight gain (188.3 g/100 g) and firmness (1.49 N), whereas the amaranth blend pasta was the softer (around half of the firmness of semolina pasta) and lost the higher amount of solids (11.5 g/100 g). The raw and popped AFB was suitable for increasing the nutritional quality through dietary fiber and high quality protein and even to obtain gluten-free pasta with acceptable cooking quality (solid loss of 3.5 g/100 g higher than that considered as acceptable for semolina pasta). The amaranth blend used in this study enables the partial or total replacement of wheat semolina in pastas with acceptable cooking quality and texture.     

Gluten-free pasta production from banana and cassava flours with egg white protein and soy protein addition

Egg white protein and soy protein were incorporated into a banana and cassava flour blend (75:25) to produce gluten-free pasta. The objectives of study were to investigate the effects of the different protein sources on the physico-chemical properties of gluten-free pasta. The levels of protein inclusion were 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% of composite flour (w/w) for each type of protein. Pasta made from 100% durum wheat semolina was used as controls. The protein fortification affected the total starch, resistant starch and protein content of gluten-free pasta compared to semolina pasta. No significant effects of soy/egg white protein addition were found in either insoluble or soluble dietary fibre content. Cooking properties of pasta (optimum cooking time, swelling index, water adsorption index and cooking loss) and texture properties (firmness and extensibility) were affected by the level of protein addition and the type of protein. Results showed the utilisation of 25% cassava flour and protein inclusion have a promising application in gluten-free pasta production.     

Influence of semolina replacement with salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) powder on the physicochemical attributes of fresh pasta

This study evaluated the influence of the incorporation of salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) fish powder (SFP) into pasta production and the effect on pasta physicochemical attributes. Four replacement levels were tested (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) together with a control pasta (100% semolina). The effects on the chemical composition, physical properties (optimal cooking time, cooking loss, water absorption index, swelling index and colour and textural properties (firmness and extensibility) were analysed. The results demonstrated that pasta with SFP had increased protein (12.88–23.40%), lipid (0.46–7.20%), ash (0.39–0.57%) and energy (122.26–161.08 kcal) contents (P < 0.05), increased cooking time (6.30–8.30 min) and cooking loss (4.28–8.02%) compared with semolina control pasta. However, all pasta samples were in the acceptable range (8 g/100 g) for cooking loss. The addition of SFP resulted in significantly decreased swelling index (2.29–1.95), water absorption (105.46–81.62%) and firmness (3.13–1.16 N) (P < 0.05) whilst increasing resistance to uniaxial extension of pasta. Colour parameters indicated comparable brightness between the samples and higher redness values for enriched pasta. Thus, pasta fortified with SFP has the potential to be a technological alternative for the food industry to provide protein-enriched pasta.     

Pasta noodles enriched with sweet potato starch: Impact on quality parameters and resistant starch content

This research is focusing on the texture, rheology, and sensory properties of pasta products enriched with the sweet potato starch (SPS) as well as on the content of resistant starch (RS) in these products. SPS was extracted from orange sweet potatoes using 1 mol. L⁻¹ Sodium chloride solution. Durum wheat flour semolina was partially supplemented with 10, 20, and 30% (w/w) by SPS in the pasta formulation and the influence of enrichment on the cooking quality, mechanical and sensory properties, and the color was observed. SPS addition resulted in decreased water absorption and shorter dough development time, but the stability of the dough was also decreased. The optimum cooking time for pasta was reduced, but only slightly, on the other side, the swelling index increased, which negatively impacted on the firmness of the products. Increasing of the SPS content also resulted in higher stickiness values for pasta. When up to 20% of wheat flour was replaced, the color of finished products was less acceptable. In the products, the resistant and total starch content were determined. Pasta cooking resulted in the reduction of RS content, which was then increased by storing products for 24 hr. It can be concluded that the substitution of part of semolina flour with SPS increased the level of RS, but on the other side, it caused some significant differences from the quality of pasta made from semolina only.     

Effect of Pleurotus eryngii Mushroom β‐Glucan on Quality Characteristics of Common Wheat Pasta

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of β‐glucan‐rich fractions (BGRFs) from Pleurotus eryngii mushroom powder on the quality, textural properties, and sensory evaluation of common wheat pasta. Pasta was prepared from semolina flour and common wheat flour by replacing common wheat flour at 2%, 4%, and 6% with BGRFs. Semolina flour showed significantly higher viscosities than common wheat flour samples. However, all viscosities, except the breakdown viscosity, were reduced with increasing percentages of BGRFs. Replacement of the common wheat flour with BGRFs resulted in a reddish brown colored pasta with a lower L* value and a higher a* value. The common wheat pastas containing up to 4% BGRFs were not significantly different from semolina pasta with regard to cooking loss. Addition of up to 2% BGRFs had no significant impact on swelling index and water absorption. The addition of BGRFs in common wheat flour had a positive effect on the quality of common wheat pasta and resulted in hardness values similar to those of semolina pasta. In a sensory evaluation, cooked pasta with 2% BGRFs had the highest overall acceptability score. In summary, the results showed that common wheat flour containing 4% BGRFs could be used to produce pasta with an improved quality and texture properties similar to semolina pasta.     

How the inclusion of mushroom powder can affect the physicochemical characteristics of pasta

In this study, a partial substitution of durum wheat semolina with three different species of mushrooms (white button, shitake and porcini) was undertaken to increase the nutritional value of the pasta. The cooking properties and textural characteristics of the pasta produced were also determined. The results showed that the addition of mushroom powder increased the cooking loss, as well as firmness and resistance of the uniaxial tension of the pasta. Porcini mushroom incorporation significantly decreased the swelling index, water absorption index and moisture content values of the cooked pasta, while, for the white button and shiitake mushrooms, there was no noticeable effect on either index compared with the control sample (containing exclusively durum wheat semolina). The addition of shiitake mushroom powder resulted in pasta with the highest firmness and tensile strength.     

Effect of supplementation of wheat flour with resistant starch and monoglycerides in pasta dried at high temperatures

Quality of pastas made from wheat flour (WF) and durum wheat semolina (DWS) with added resistant starch (RS) and distilled monoglyceride was evaluated through a central composite rotational design. A press extruder was used to produce the pasta. Water absorption index showed statistical difference between the WF and DWS indicating that proteins present in each samples were different. Pasta samples obtained with the WF presented a shorter cooking time and less solid loss than those obtained with DWS. Increase in volume and weight gain was similar for both samples. Instrumental texture responses showed that pasta made from DWS had higher values for firmness and springiness and lower for adhesiveness when compare to WF pastas. Nevertheless, pasta made from both samples showed similar behaviours of final RS contents of 4% after cooking. Therefore, they could be considered as a source of fibres according to the Brazilian Laws (3 g dietary fibre/100 g product).     

Chemical,biological and sensory evaluation of pasta products supplemented with α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours

α‐Galactoside‐free lupin flour has been used to supplement durum wheat semolina flour in order to increase the nutritive value of pasta products. Supplemented pasta products had a shorter cooking time, higher cooking water absorption, cooking loss and protein loss in water than control pasta prepared with only semolina. Sensory evaluation of cooked pastas showed that products supplemented with 80 g kg^?1 of α‐galactoside‐free Lupinus angustifolius var. Emir flour or with 100 g kg^?1 of α‐galactoside‐free Lupinus angustifolius var. Troll flour showed the same acceptability by panellists as the semolina pasta. These levels of supplementation were selected for further studies. The cooked α‐galactoside‐free lupin/semolina pastas showed higher amounts of protein, dietary fibre, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and antioxidant capacity than control pasta and a reasonable level of vitamin B₁, vitamin B₂ and vitamin E. Biological assessment of cooked pastas indicated that the true protein digestibility did not change after the fortification of semolina but protein efficiency ratio increased sharply in the pasta supplemented with α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours (2.07 and 1.92 for Emir and Troll lupin varieties, respectively) in comparison with the control pasta (1.11). It is concluded that the α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours are an adequate ingredient to improve the nutritional quality of pasta products without adding flatulent oligosaccharides. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Quality characteristics of dried pasta enriched with buckwheat flour

The addition of pseudocereal flours to semolina is becoming more and more popular to improve the nutritional quality of the resultant pasta. The aim of this study was the evaluation of several properties of commercial pasta made from a mixture of buckwheat flour and durum wheat semolina. The characterisation of products, belonging to different producers, focused on the evaluation of chemical and physical properties, such as water uptake and mechanical properties before and after cooking and surface characteristics. A sensory analysis was also performed in order to evaluate firmness, resistance to breaking and overall acceptability. The results highlighted high heterogeneity of the mechanical properties, solid loss and water absorption among the samples. The great variability could be explained by the different processing conditions adopted by each producer, particularly by the procedure used to form and shape the dough into the final product.     

Gluten‐Free Precooked Rice‐Yellow Pea Pasta: Effect of Extrusion‐Cooking Conditions on Phenolic Acids Composition,Selected Properties and Microstructure

Rice/yellow pea flour blend (2/1 ratio) was used to produce gluten‐free precooked pasta using a single‐screw modified extrusion‐cooker TS‐45. The effect of moisture content (28%, 30%, and 32%) and screw speed (60, 80, and 100 rpm) on some quality parameters was assessed. The phenolic acids profile and selected pasta properties were tested, like pasting properties, water absorption capacity, cooking loss, texture characteristics, microstructure, and sensory overall acceptability. Results indicated that dough moisture content influenced all tested quality parameters of precooked pasta except firmness. Screw speed showed an effect only on some quality parameters. The extrusion‐cooking process at 30% of dough moisture with 80 rpm is appropriate to obtain rice‐yellow pea precooked pasta with high content of phenolics and adequate quality. These pasta products exhibited firm texture, low stickiness, and regular and compact interne structure confirmed by high score in sensory overall acceptability.     

Incorporation of Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima biomass in pasta products. Part 1: Preparation and evaluation

BACKGROUND: Microalgae are able to enhance the nutritional content of conventional foods and hence to positively affect human health, due to their original chemical composition. The aim of the present study was to prepare fresh spaghetti enriched with different amounts of microalgae biomass (Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima) and to compare the quality parameters (optimal cooking time, cooking losses, swelling index and water absorption), chemical composition, instrumental texture and colour of the raw and cooked pasta enriched with microalgae biomass with standard semolina spaghetti. RESULTS: The incorporation of microalgae results in an increase of quality parameters when compared to the control sample. The colour of microalgae pastas remained relatively stable after cooking. The addition of microalgae resulted in an increase in the raw pasta firmness when compared to the control sample. Of all the microalgae studied, an increase in the biomass concentration (0.5–2.0%) resulted in a general tendency of an increase in the pasta firmness. Sensory analysis revealed that microalgae pastas had higher acceptance scores by the panellists than the control pasta. CONCLUSION: Microalgae pastas presented very appellative colours, such as orange and green, similar to pastas produced with vegetables, with nutritional advantages, showing energetic values similar to commercial pastas. The use of microalgae biomass can enhance the nutritional and sensorial quality of pasta, without affecting its cooking and textural properties. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Structuring and texturing gluten-free pasta: egg albumen or whey proteins?

The effects of adding egg albumen or whey proteins to pasta made from parboiled rice flour (PR) were investigated. Pasta quality was evaluated in terms of color, furosine content, and cooking properties (water absorption, cooking loss, and consistency at the optimal cooking time). The surface heterogeneity of the cooked and uncooked materials was studied, and some starch properties (pasting properties and starch susceptibility to α-amylase hydrolysis) were assessed, along with the features of the protein network as determined by conditional solubility studies and with ultrastructural features of the cooked products. Egg albumen improved pasta appearance and gave a product with low cooking loss, firmer, and nutritionally more valuable than the other ones. In albumen-enriched pasta, small starch granules appear homogeneously surrounded by a protein network. In the uncooked product, the protein network is stabilized mostly by hydrophobic interactions, but additional disulfide interprotein bonds form upon cooking. Thus, addition of 15 % liquid albumen to PR results in significant improvement of the textural and structural features of rice-based gluten-free pasta.     

Optimising process for making pasta from maize in admixture with durum wheat

Processing conditions for making pasta from blends of maize (Zea mays L) flour and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf) semolina (ratio 66:33 w) were studied. The maize mill stream characteristics determined the quality of the maize pasta; flours with low lipid content and very fine granulometry produced pasta with good colour characteristics and high cooking quality (with especially good surface conditions). The use of white maize varieties was preferred; they produced pasta which, after heat treatment, had colour indices close to those of durum wheat pasta. Extrusion conditions affected the colour characteristics and cooking quality of the pasta. The cooking qualities of macaroni products were better than those of spaghetti. In all cases, heat treatment (90°C for 2 h) improved the cooking quality of the pasta: it reduced cooking losses but did not alter the surface condition and viscoelasticity index.     

Ingredient composition and pasta:water cooking ratio affect cooking properties of nontraditional spaghetti

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of different pasta:water ratios and nontraditional ingredients on the cooking properties of spaghetti. Spaghetti was made using semolina and semolina containing 20% (w/w) nontraditional (NT) ingredients (corn, flaxseed, lentil, oat, pinto bean and soybean flours). Pasta:water ratios evaluated were 13 g:400 mL, 27 g:400 mL and 48 g:400 mL. Addition of pasta caused a decline in cooking water temperature. The water temperature drop and recovery time to boiling (100 °C) varied with pasta:water ratio and with nontraditional ingredient in the spaghetti. These results were attributed to the calculated specific heat capacity of the ingredients incorporated in the spaghetti. Cooking time was reduced for all NT spaghetti with respect to the control sample and was longest when 48 g of pasta was cooked. Pasta:water ratio affected cooking loss but not cooked weight or cooked firmness. Cooking losses were greater with 13 g:400 mL compared to 48 g:400 mL.     

Use of a toasted durum whole meal in the production of a traditional Italian pasta: chemical, mechanical, sensory and image analyses

The characterisation of traditional Italian pasta obtained by mixing amounts of toasted whole meal with re-milled semolina and other ingredients was obtained by means of physico-chemical, rheological, mechanical, sensory and image analyses. The toasted meal showed higher ash, fibre and protein contents than re-milled semolina. The replacement of percentages of re-milled semolina with the toasted meal and soft flour increased tenacity and decreased extensibility and strength, making the dough less suitable for pasta-making. The P / L values were indices of high starch damage. The replacement of part of re-milled semolina and water with toasted whole wheat meal, soft flour and eggs increased the optimal cooking time and the amount of water absorbed during cooking but made the other cooking parameters worse. The image analysis provided evidence of the changes induced by the use of toasted wholemeal, soft flour and eggs in the microscopic structure of pasta protein and starch.     

Germinated Cajanus cajan seeds as ingredients in pasta products: Chemical,biological and sensory evaluation

Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) seeds were germinated for 4 days at 20 °C in darkness in order to improve the nutritional quality of seeds. Germination brought about a sharp reduction of α-galactosides, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity (83%, 61% and 36%, respectively) and an increment of vitamin B₂ (145%), vitamin C (from negligible amounts to 14 mg/100 g d.m.), vitamin E (108%) and total antioxidant capacity (28%). These flours were used as ingredients to produce pasta products in a proportion of 5%, 8% and 10%. The supplemented pasta products had shorter cooking time and higher water absorption, cooking and protein losses in water than had control pasta (100% semolina). From sensory evaluation, fortified pasta generally had acceptability similar to control pasta. Cooked pasta with the highest level of substitution (semolina:germinated pigeon pea flour at 10%) was chemically and biologically evaluated and results showed that protein, fat, dietary fibre and mineral contents were improved. Fortified pasta provided more vitamin B₁, B₂, E and antioxidant capacity than did control pasta. Biological assessment of fortified, cooked pasta indicated that true TD and PER value increased by 12% and 64%, respectively, in comparison with control. The germinated pigeon pea flour can be an excellent ingredient to increase the nutritional value of semolina pasta without affecting the sensory properties.     

Effects of toasting on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour added to durum wheat pasta

The effects of the toasting process on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea flour were studied, along with the cooking behaviour, and antioxidant and nutritional properties of pasta enriched with the chickpea flour. The toasting process increased the resistant starch, insoluble dietary fibre and antioxidant properties of the flour. Addition of chickpea flour (raw and toasted) to durum wheat semolina changed the carbohydrate profile in the uncooked and cooked enriched pasta, especially with the toasted chickpea, and worsened the overall quality of the pasta. The increase in total phenolic content and total free phenolic acid content in the uncooked pasta was due to positive effects of addition of the chickpea flours, while the increase in the bound phenolics fraction in the cooked pasta was from the durum wheat, which was crucial for its high concentrations of ferulic acid. The increase in the free fraction of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity in cooked pasta was consistent with the addition of chickpea.