Estimates of the energy impact of ventilation and associated financial expenditures

Ventilation is essential for the maintenance of good indoor air quality, although there is evidence to suggest that energy loss through uncontrolled or unnecessary air infiltration is excessive. In this study, estimates are presented for air change (ventilation and infiltration) energy use in non-industrial buildings for 13 countries. Various methods are used for the estimates, but they are mainly based on calculating the total annual enthalpy change needed for the conditioning of air. The potential for reduced energy use by improved ventilation control is also briefly reviewed. Considering the non-industrial building stock of the 13 countries collectively, the total annual loss of heating energy due to air change is estimated to amount to 48% of delivered space conditioning energy (including heating equipment losses). The results emphasise that air change related energy losses are as important as conduction and equipment losses (including ‘flue’ losses) in dissipating delivered space conditioning energy from buildings.In addition, estimated financial expenditures, as well as carbon dioxide emissions associated with this energy use are indicated. The financial expenditures are derived from the air change energy estimates using published International Energy Agency (IEA) energy pricing information. The magnitudes of the carbon dioxide emissions have been based on published IEA estimates of total emissions from energy-related sources for each country.     

Addressing climate change in comfort standards

According to the Buildings Energy Data Book published by the U.S. Department of Energy, in 2006 the building sector consumed 38.9% of the total primary energy used in the United States. Of this energy, 34.8% is used by buildings for space heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This energy often involves the combustion of fossil fuels, contributing to carbon dioxide emissions and climate change. Even if greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere, extreme climate events and sea level rise will continue for several centuries due to inertia of the atmosphere. Therefore, adaptation will be a necessary compliment to carbon dioxide mitigation efforts. This paper argues that both mitigation of greenhouse gases and adaptation to climate change should be added to our building codes and standards. Since space heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning utilize a large amount of energy in buildings, we should begin by redefining our thermal comfort standards and add strategies that mitigate carbon dioxide emissions and adapt to predicted climate variability.     

低碳建筑设计理念与技术

针对全球气候环境日益变暖和我国建筑二氧化碳排放量比例居高形势,该文提出低碳建筑将成为建筑界的永恒课题。对低碳建筑概念进行阐述,提出自然采光与自然通风设计和太阳能得热空间与温度梯度场房间设计的低碳建筑设计理念;剖析低碳建筑技术的利用,并试算三例住宅在使用过程中二氧化碳排放量,指出要实现整个寿命周期的低碳建筑,不仅只是实现建筑使用期间的低碳,还需要从材料的生产和建造、维护与更新、拆除和重新利用等这些方面充分考虑降低能耗和二氧化碳的排放。     

对建筑楼宇碳排放量计算模型的探索

对建筑楼宇碳排放量的计算模型进行研究,将有助于评估建筑楼宇整个生命周期对环境的影响。本文对建筑的整个生命周期中各个阶段的二氧化碳排放量进行了探索,通过对建筑物材料及所耗能源数据进行收集与分析,获得不同建筑材料及能源碳排放系数。在前人研究的基础上,建立建筑物碳排放量的计算模型。通过案例分析,得到建筑使用和维护阶段中的碳排放量占到全生命周期的比例最大的结论。     

Evolution of energy policy in the Netherlands: past,present and future

In this paper, the past, present and possible future developments of energy policy for the built environment in the Netherlands are described briefly. The focus is on the development of and necessity for introducing new policy instruments for the built environment. Over the years, energy policy has evolved gradually to create a more integrated approach to the energy efficiency of buildings and larger urban districts. However, further evolution might be inevitable due to a shift of the primary driver for ‘energy’ policy from energy conservation to carbon dioxide reduction. Maximum targets of carbon dioxide emissions are being developed for each sector by 2010 and each sector has the obligation to meet its defined carbon dioxide reduction goal. Severe carbon dioxide reduction goals for the built environment in the Netherlands can only be achieved by means of energy efficiency improvement and fuel substitution, replacing natural gas with lower-carbon fuels. The introduction of lower-carbon fuels raises policy questions on whether to maintain the old infrastructure at great cost or whether investment should be in a new energy infrastructure and how this transition can be managed.     

Evolution of energy policy in the Netherlands: past, present and future

In this paper, the past, present and possible future developments of energy policy for the built environment in the Netherlands are described briefly. The focus is on the development of and necessity for introducing new policy instruments for the built environment. Over the years, energy policy has evolved gradually to create a more integrated approach to the energy efficiency of buildings and larger urban districts. However, further evolution might be inevitable due to a shift of the primary driver for 'energy' policy from energy conservation to carbon dioxide reduction. Maximum targets of carbon dioxide emissions are being developed for each sector by 2010 and each sector has the obligation to meet its defined carbon dioxide reduction goal. Severe carbon dioxide reduction goals for the built environment in the Netherlands can only be achieved by means of energy efficiency improvement and fuel substitution, replacing natural gas with lower-carbon fuels. The introduction of lower-carbon fuels raises policy questions on whether to maintain the old infrastructure at great cost or whether investment should be in a new energy infrastructure and how this transition can be managed.     

基于施工图的建筑建造阶段碳计算方法初探

建筑领域碳排放计算已成为越来越重要的课题,本文建立了基于施工图的建筑物建造阶段碳排放计算方法,该计算方法以施工文件相关数据为计算依据,由于施工图文件数据比较吻合实际情况,故这种方法可以较精确地计算建筑建造阶段碳排放量。利用该计算方法,对深圳市某混凝土结构的值班室建造阶段的碳排放进行计算分析,结果表明建材生产阶段的碳排放在建造阶段总排放量中占主要部分,据此提出了建筑物建造阶段碳减排的对策建议。     

Developing a local carbon dioxide emissions inventory based on energy demand and waste production

This paper reports the development of a carbon dioxide emissions matrix for the Oeiras municipality, one of the largest Portuguese municipalities, located in the metropolitan area of Lisbon. This matrix takes into account greenhouse gas emissions, caused by an increase of electricity demand in buildings as well as solid and liquid wastes treatment, from the domestic and services sectors. Using emission factors that were calculated from the relationship between the produced energy and amount of treated wastes, greenhouse gas emissions in the Oeiras municipality, were estimated for a time series of six years (1998 to 2003). The results obtained showed that the electricity sector accounts for about 75% of the municipal emissions in 2003. This study constitutes a tool to define sectors for appropriate action, including energy planning and also public information.     

全国碳市场建设现状及水泥行业应对措施探讨

建材行业二氧化碳量排放的65%～67%来自水泥制造业,工艺环节的排放又占到水泥制造业二氧化碳排放的60%以上,面对全国碳市场即将于今年启动,水泥熟料作为首批纳入行业,基准值确定与碳配额的分配将直接关系到企业的履约成本。企业通过转变原料、能源消费方式,加大节能减排新技术的推行力度,结合碳资产的有效管理,不仅可以消除碳交易制度带来的影响,先进企业还可以做到在碳市场中有所盈利。     

Cost effective energy and carbon emissions optimization in building renovation (Annex 56)

The construction sector has become an important target for reducing carbon emissions and energy consumption and for kerbing resource depletion, because of its relevance in all these important areas.Many of the current energy related policies have their focus on new buildings but, due to the low rates of replacement of the existing building stock, it is crucial that the low energy performances of these buildings are improved. Most of these buildings,due to design and construction constraints,may not be able to reach the new energy efficiency standards,which many times involve complex construction works. Nevertheless, the achievement of significant reductions in energy consumption and carbon emissions may not always require a highly efficient solution for the envelope. Other solutions, combining energy efficiency measures and the use of renewable energy, are also possible.In this context, the key research problem addressed in Annex 56 was to understand how far it is possible to go with energy conservation and efficiency measures and from which point the measures to foster renewable energy use become more economical taking into account the local context and the many restrictions the existing buildings face.Thus,a new methodology was developed to be used in the decision making process for energy related building renovation, allowing to find a cost-effective balance between energy consumption,carbon emissions and overall added value achieved in the renovation process.The methodology developed within IEA EBC Annex 56 project aims at defining,assessing and comparing energy renovation activities in a cost-effective way,o ptimizing the energy use and the carbon emissions reduction,mainly in residential buildings but also in non-residential buildings without complex HVAC technologies.The methodology explores the full range of cost-effective reduction of carbon emissions and energy use and takes into account also the additional benefits and the overall added value achieved by the building within the renovation process.     

基于 DPSIR 和改进 TOPSIS 模型的装配式建筑碳排放影响因素研究

“双碳” 目标下装配式建筑在节能减排方面具有显著优势,探究其碳排放影响因素具有重要意义。通过文献分析法对装配式建筑碳排放影响因素进行筛选, 基于 DPSIR 模型从驱动力、压力、状态、影响、响应 5 个层面构建装配式建筑碳排放影响因素指标体系,利用改进的 TOPSIS 模型对吉林省 2010~2020 年装配式建筑碳排放影响因素进行了实证研究。 结果表明, 5 个层面对装配式建筑碳排放的影响程度不同,其影响程度排序为:压力>状态>驱动力>影响>响应。 并根据分析结果针对性地提出顶层设计促进装配式建筑发展、优化装配式建筑用能结构、助推装配式建筑绿色发展的建议。     

Life-cycle carbon and cost analysis of energy efficiency measures in new commercial buildings

Energy efficiency in new building construction has become a key target to lower nation-wide energy use. The goals of this paper are to estimate life-cycle energy savings, carbon emission reduction, and cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency measures in new commercial buildings using an integrated design approach, and estimate the implications from a cost on energy-based carbon emissions. A total of 576 energy simulations are run for 12 prototypical buildings in 16 cities, with 3 building designs for each building-location combination. Simulated energy consumption and building cost databases are used to determine the life-cycle cost-effectiveness and carbon emissions of each design. The results show conventional energy efficiency technologies can be used to decrease energy use in new commercial buildings by 20-30% on average and up to over 40% for some building types and locations. These reductions can often be done at negative life-cycle costs because the improved efficiencies allow the installation of smaller, cheaper HVAC equipment. These improvements not only save money and energy, but reduce a building’s carbon footprint by 16% on average. A cost on carbon emissions from energy use increases the return on energy efficiency investments because energy is more expensive, making some cost-ineffective projects economically feasible.     

Life cycle primary energy use and carbon emission of an eight-storey wood-framed apartment building

In this study the life cycle primary energy use and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission of an eight-storey wood-framed apartment building are analyzed. All life cycle phases are included, including acquisition and processing of materials, on-site construction, building operation, demolition and materials disposal. The calculated primary energy use includes the entire energy system chains, and carbon flows are tracked including fossil fuel emissions, process emissions, carbon stocks in building materials, and avoided fossil emissions due to biofuel substitution. The results show that building operation uses the largest share of life cycle energy use, becoming increasingly dominant as the life span of the building increases. The type of heating system strongly influences the primary energy use and CO₂ emission; a biomass-based system with cogeneration of district heat and electricity achieves low primary energy use and very low CO₂ emissions. Using biomass residues from the wood products chain to substitute for fossil fuels significantly reduces net CO₂ emission. Excluding household tap water and electricity, a negative life cycle net CO₂ emission can be achieved due to the wood-based construction materials and biomass-based energy supply system. This study shows the importance of using a life cycle perspective when evaluating primary energy and climatic impacts of buildings.     

Energy performance assessment of existing dwellings

The existing buildings stock in European countries accounts for over 40% of final energy consumption in the European Union (EU) member states, of which residential use represents 63% of total energy consumption in the buildings sector. Consequently, an increase of building energy performance can constitute an important instrument in the efforts to alleviate the EU energy import dependency and comply with the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is also in accordance to the European Directive on the energy performance of buildings (EPBD), which has come to effect on 4 January 2006. The energy performance assessment for existing dwellings (EPA-ED) is a new methodology supported by software, developed in the framework of a European project that focuses on energy related issues for existing residential buildings, in line with the EPBD. This paper presents an overview of the method and software that can be used to perform building energy audits and assess buildings in a uniform way, perform demand and savings calculations, provide owners with specific advice for measures to improve energy performance, issue an energy performance certificate for existing buildings, and include some representative results from the pilot studies performed in several European countries. Also the sister-method EPA-NR, on non-residential buildings, currently under construction, is introduced.     

基于工程量清单的建筑施工阶段碳排放计算——以福建省为例

随着我国经济的逐渐繁荣,建筑市场发展速度非常快,建设量的增长达到高峰期,建筑规模大、施工耗能多,向大气中排放了许多的CO_2。建筑企业的计价均以清单工程量乘以套入的市场单价而得,以此计算思路,将市场单价替换为各材料设备的碳排放因子,核算建筑产品的碳排放总量。以此思路计算工程量清单单位定额的碳排放系数,构建建筑碳排放计算模型。与工程量计算软件相结合的碳排放核算模型可在福建省区域内推广使用,指导建设各方在项目设计、施工及监理过程中对不同材料、设备开展专项节能与减排活动。核算工具是基于工程量计算软件建立起来的,建筑工程技术人员使用起来也较为方便,可以在业内得到较为广泛的应用,前景广阔。     

基于DeST-h软件的严寒、寒冷地区既有居住建筑绿色改造能耗分析

城镇既有居住建筑绿色改造是实现我国能耗总量控制、单位GDP二氧化碳排放量削减、绿色建筑建设的重要途径。通过选取严寒、寒冷地区气候子区典型城镇,并根据典型城镇历年人口、人均住宅面积以及相关设计规范等建立各气候子区典型城镇居住建筑模型;同时,采用建筑能耗模拟软件DeST-h模拟分析了严寒、寒冷地区历年既有居住建筑节能改造后的能耗情况,从而得到既有居住建筑绿色改造对严寒、寒冷地区的居住建筑能耗的影响,对同类既有居住建筑绿色改造具有一定的参考价值。     

低碳建筑的评价指标初探

提出用建筑利用中的人均碳排放指标和建筑用能过程碳减排效率对低碳建筑进行评价。指出建筑碳排放实质上是人的碳排放,建筑只是使用者的能耗平台。因此,对建筑碳排放的评价要用强度指标,即建筑使用者人均碳排放指标。而对建筑设备的碳排放评价,是一个投入产出分析过程,即投入隐含碳、间接碳和直接碳,产出避免碳排放量的效率。同时计算得出我国太阳能光伏发电的隐含碳排放量。     

影响建筑碳交易实施的关键问题分析

阐述了我国开展建筑碳排放权交易的必要性。通过对深圳市建筑能源消耗变化趋势的分析和建筑碳排放权交易机制的解读,提出开展建筑碳交易是以市场手段探索建筑节能工作的一条新路径。分析了阻碍我国碳交易试点城市实施建筑碳排放权交易的关键问题:建筑碳排放边界和建筑碳排放权交易主体的确定方法,这二者都是沿用工业企业的碳交易思路,没有体现我国建筑和建筑用能管理的实际情况。以深圳市为案例探讨了可行的应对策略和方法,提出并分析了以单栋建筑为对象采用建筑物物理边界作为建筑碳排放边界的可行性;同时提出了分阶段确定建筑碳交易主体的思路,现阶段对不同建筑类型可制定不同的交易主体,如交易对象可以是办公楼的建筑业主,酒店和商业建筑的建筑用户;而未来交易主体可以过渡为能源缴费单位。     

大型公共建筑碳足迹框架体系研究

为了研究大型公共建筑的节能减排,采用复杂系统建模与仿真的思路构建此类建筑破足迹框架体系.此体系的科学计童结果将有利于人们发现当前大型公共建筑能源浪费和碳排放问题的严重程度及主要集中领域,从而采取有效措施减少此类建筑特定区域内的能耗量和碳排量,并对其实施长期的监管与调整.该框架模型理论上具有较好的适应性,可适用于量化分析...     

Energy conservation regulations: Impacts on design and procurement of low energy buildings

To reduce the substantial contribution of the built environment to energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, the new ‘Part L: Conservation of Fuel and Power’ of the Building Regulations for England and Wales came into force in April, 2006. As a result, the design of all new-build and refurbished buildings must comply with ‘Target Carbon Emissions Rates’. Apart from the purely practical implications of compliance, the new Part L has prompted interesting questions concerning procurement and the impact on design and construction teams.