Numerical Study on Plasma Jet and Particle Behavior in Multi-arc Plasma Spraying

Plasma jet and particle behavior in conventional single-arc plasma spraying has been subject to intensive numerical research. However, multi-arc plasma spraying is a different case which has yet to be investigated more closely. Numerical models developed to investigate the characteristics of multi-arc plasma spraying (plasma generator, plasma jet, and plasma–particle interaction models) were introduced in previous publications by the authors. The plasma generator and plasma jet models were already validated by comparing calculated plasma temperatures with results of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. In this study, the above-mentioned models were subjected to further validation effort. Calculated particle in-flight characteristics were compared with those determined by means of particle diagnostics and high-speed videography. The results show very good agreement. The main aim of the current publication is to derive conclusions regarding the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle in-flight behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying. For this purpose, a numerical parameter study is conducted in which the validated models are used to allow variations in the process parameters. Results regarding plasma jet/particle in-flight temperatures and velocities are presented. Furthermore, the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying are discussed and explained. This contributes to better understanding of the multi-arc plasma spraying process, in particular regarding the injection behavior of particles into hot regions of the plasma jet. Finally, an example test case showing a possible practical application area of the models is introduced.     

气体放电热源喷涂技术的数值模拟研究现状∗

热喷涂技术是表面工程领域中极为重要的一种装备强化修复技术，其中以气体放电形式为热源的喷涂技术包括等离子喷涂和电弧喷涂，两者更是占据热喷涂领域的绝大市场份额，采用数值模拟可以解决一些在试验上较为棘手的重点研究问题， 如等离子体流场和熔滴传热传质行为等，以期实现工艺参数的准确调控和优异涂层的制备。研究电弧及等离子喷涂模拟的模型差异化问题及流场速度、温度、电磁性质，归纳相关模拟的发展历程，并调查试验与模拟的吻合程度。结果表明：电弧喷涂中丝材原料会使阴阳极产生温度差，水平速度分布较发散，熔滴模型也多未考虑熔滴群间相互作用；等离子喷涂研究中常用的三维瞬态双温模型已十分贴近实际工况，对熔滴飞行中的加热、加速过程及破碎行为的研究已较为完备，但仍存在湍流模型计算精度不够、对鞘层弧柱区的研究不够深入等问题。后续应重点在电弧喷涂多液滴模型、等离子体电磁作用和等离子丝材喷涂工艺的数值模拟等方面进行深入研究。     

新型大气长层流等离子体喷涂方法和研究进展

介绍了一种新型大气等离子喷涂方法,该方法采用特殊内通道结构的直流非转移电弧等离子发生器,可以直接在大气条件下获得长度100～1000 mm之间变化的等离子射流。在大气条件下,等离子射流的流动特性具有"长、直、准"的层流或类层流状态,工作时噪音小于80 dB。在工作参数范围内,等离子射流的长度在固定总气流量条件下可以随输出功率的增加而增长;射流的长度在固定输出功率的条件下随总气流量的增加而减小。当使用在大气等离子喷涂技术中时,会为飞行粉末颗粒带来超长的加热和加速过程。文中详细介绍了大气层流等离子喷涂技术的研究历史和研究现状,以及研究团队利用该新型技术制备的6种涂层的显微结构、颗粒的飞行和加热特点,并对比了目前其他大气等离子喷涂技术的结果。结果表明,文中介绍的方法在最低的输出功率和气流量条件下,为金属和陶瓷颗粒提供了超长的飞行和加热条件,表现为较低的颗粒飞行速度和超高的颗粒表面温度。可以在不同的射流长度或喷涂距离下,获得不同的颗粒熔化状态或涂层结构,并发现可以直接在大气条件下获得大规模气液共沉积的涂层。     

Improvement of Coating Properties in Three-Cathode Atmospheric Plasma Spraying

The main aim of this study is to improve the coating properties of three-cathode atmospheric plasma-sprayed coatings with respect to porosity and residual stresses. This was done by means of numerical simulation coupled with advanced diagnostic methods. A numerical model for the triple injection of alumina feedstock, as well as acceleration and heating of the powder particles in the characteristic threefold symmetrical plasma jet cross section produced by a three-cathode-plasma torch, was developed. The modeling results for the standard injector’s position “0” were calculated and experimentally verified by laser Doppler anemometry. Based on the criteria defined for the concentrated feedstock transport and homogeneous thermal treatment of powder particles in the plasma jet, the optimal injection position was found. In the next step, a previously developed, coupled CFD-FEM-simulation model was used for simulations of the coating build-up, describing flattening, solidification, and deformation due to shrinkage for alumina particles on a rough substrate surface.     

From DC Time-Dependent Thermal Plasma Generation to Suspension Plasma-Spraying Interactions

This paper proposes an original route for modeling the time-dependent behavior of a plasma jet issued from a DC plasma-spraying torch operating with various kinds of gas mixtures. The hydrodynamic interactions between this jet and a liquid jet for suspension plasma-spraying or a classical particle injection for the deposition of coatings are studied. In a first step, the classical plasma spraying process was explored using the FLUENT CFD code. Zirconia particles, defined as Lagrangian particles, were injected in an Ar/H₂ flow and their positions, kinetic and thermal states were compared with experimental results. The trend and intensity of the values demonstrated a rather good agreement. In a second step, the suspension plasma spraying was investigated with the AQUILON CFD to simulate interactions between the plasma and aqueous jets. An Ar/H₂ plasma flow was simulated with the Large Eddy Scale turbulence model assumption, in which a liquid jet had been introduced. The behavior observed during the first stage of the interactions between the two fluids corresponded to expectations.     

Plasma Spraying of Copper by Hybrid Water-Gas DC Arc Plasma Torch

Water-stabilized DC arc plasma torches offer a good alternative to common plasma sources used for plasma spraying applications. Unique properties of the generated plasma are determined by a specific plasma torch construction. This article is focused on a study of the plasma spraying process performed by a hybrid torch WSP500^®-H, which combines two principles of arc stabilization—water vortex and gas flow. Spraying tests with copper powder have been carried out in a wide range of plasma torch parameters. First, analyses of particle in-flight behavior for various spraying conditions were done. After, particles were collected in liquid nitrogen, which enabled analyses of the particle in-flight oxidation. A series of spraying tests were carried out and coatings were analyzed for their microstructure, porosity, oxide content, mechanical, and thermal properties.     

Liquid Precursor Plasma Spraying: Modeling the Interactions Between the Transient Plasma Jet and the Droplets

Plasma spraying using liquid feedstock makes it possible to produce thin coatings (<100 μm) with more refined microstructures than in conventional plasma spraying. However, the low density of the feedstock droplets makes them very sensitive to the instantaneous characteristics of the fluctuating plasma jet at the location where they are injected. In this study, the interactions between the fluctuating plasma jet and droplets are explored by using numerical simulations. The computations are based on a three-dimensional and time-dependent model of the plasma jet that couples the dynamic behaviour of the arc inside the torch and the plasma jet issuing from the plasma torch. The turbulence that develops in the jet flow issuing in air is modeled by a large Eddy simulation model that computes the largest structures of the flow which carry most of the energy and momentum. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

低功率等离子体炬生产钛合金粉末的理论与实验研究

探讨使用低功率等离子体炬生产钛合金金属粉末的可能性.设计一种氩气直流非转移电弧等离子体炬,并对其等离子体射流特性和导线温度进行数值分析.喷嘴附件内的最高射流速度为838～1178 m/s,不同气体流速下顶点处的射流速度为494～645 m/s.等离子体气体流速对有效等离子体射流长度无显著影响.利用等离子体射流的温度和速...     

大气等离子射流中粒子飞行行为的试验测量

为考察等离子熔射中粉末的飞行过程,应用芬兰Oseir公司等离子喷涂在线监测和分析设备SprayWatch对射流中粒子的温度、飞行速度和粒子流量进行了测量,探讨了等离子弧电压、电流、功率以及送粉量等参数对粒子飞行状态的影响.结果表明:同等功率下,电流对粒子速度的影响高于电压,电压对粒子流量的影响高于电流,电压、电流对粒子温度则呈现交替重要的影响;在电流400A、电压50V下粒子流量随送粉量的增加呈现低-高-低的"山峦"状变化,反映了粒子飞行路径和分布的变化.     

Controlling particle injection in plasma spraying

This paper reviews experimental and analytical techniques that examine the efficiency of systems for the injection of powders in plasma jets used in spray coating. The types of injectors, the experimental techniques for observing particle trajectories and distributions, and the mathematical models used to investigate the momentum and heat-transfer phenomena between particles, carrier gas, and plasma jet are described. Experimental data are presented from numerous examples from the plasma spraying of ceramic powders.     

Three Dimensional Modeling of the Plasma Spray Process

Results of simulations of three-dimensional (3D) temperature and flow fields inside and outside of a DC arc plasma torch in steady state are presented with transverse particle and carrier gas injection into the plasma jet. The results show that an increase of the gas flow rate at constant current moves the anode arc root further downstream leading to higher enthalpy and velocity at the exit of the torch anode, and stronger mixing effects in the jet region. An increase of the arc current with constant gas flow rate shortens the arc, but increases the enthalpy and velocity at the exit of the torch nozzle, and leads to longer jets. 3D features of the plasma jet due to the 3D starting conditions at the torch exit and, in particular, due to the transverse carrier gas and particle injection, as well as 3D trajectories and heating histories of sprayed particles are also discussed.     

Plasma spraying using Ar-He-H2 gas mixtures

In plasma spraying, the properties of the plasma-forming gas largely control the characteristics of the plasma jet and the momentum, heat, and mass transfers to the particles injected in the flow. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of gas composition on the static and dynamic behaviors of the plasma jet. The latter behaviors were investigated from measurements of arc voltage and plasma jet velocity. Ternary gas mixtures of argon, helium, and hydrogen were used. The results were expressed as correlations between arc voltage and flow velocity, and the operating parameters of the gun for a specific nozzle diameter.     

Effect of Powder Injection Location on Ceramic Coatings Properties When Using Plasma Spray

The effect of powder injecting location of the plasma spraying on spraying properties was studied. Three different powder-injecting methods were applied in the experiment. In the first method, the particles were axially injected into the plasma flow from the cathode tip. In the second method, the particles were radially injected into the plasma flow just downstream of the anode arc root inside the anode nozzle. In the third method, the particles were radially injected into the plasma jet at the nozzle exit. The alumina particles with a mean diameter of 20 μm were used to deposit coatings. Spraying properties, such as the deposition efficiency, the melting rate of the powder particles, and the coating quality were investigated. The results show that the spraying with axial particle injecting can heat and melt the powder particles more effectively, produce coatings with better quality, and have higher deposition efficiency. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

Analysis of the unsteadiness of a plasma jet and the related turbulence

Plasma spraying using liquid feedstock allows realizing thin coatings (< 100 μm). In this process, the plasma jet fluctuations play an important role in the behavior of the liquid fragmentation and then in the final deposit characteristics. In this study, numerical simulations of two different plasma jets (argon or argon hydrogen mixture) issuing into air are investigated. The computations are based on a compressible model and a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) modeling for the turbulence. The aim of this work is to analyze the unsteady effects of the plasma jet regarding those of turbulence. In particular, the characterization of the turbulent zone inside the plasma jet is provided. A turbulence analysis is carried out in order to estimate the levels of turbulence and modeling effects.     

Spray parameters and particle behavior relationships during plasma spraying

Using laser anemometry, laser fluxmetry, and statistical two-color pyrometry, the velocity, number flux, and surface temperature distributions of alumina and zirconia particles in dc plasma jets have been determined inflight for various spraying parameters. The flux measurements emphasized the importance of the carrier gas flow rate, which must be adjusted to the plasma jet momentum depending on the arc current, nozzle diameter, gas flow rate, and gas nature. It has also been shown that the particle trajectories depend both on the particle size and injection velocity distributions and that the position and tilting of the injector plays a great role. The particle size drastically influences its surface temperature and velocity, and for the refractory materials studied, only the particles below 45 μm in diameter are fully molten in Ar-H₂ (30 vol%) plasma jets at 40 kW. The morphology of the particles is also a critical parameter. The agglomerated particles partially explode upon penetration into the jet, and the heat propagation phenomenon is seriously enhanced, particularly for particles larger than 40 μm. The effects of the arc current and gas flow rate have been studied, and the results obtained in an air atmosphere cannot be understood without considering the enhanced pumping of air when the plasma velocity is increased. The Ar-He (60 vol%) and Ar-H₂ (30 vol%) plasma jets, when conditions are found where both plasma jets have about the same dimensions, do not result in the same treatment for the particles. The particles are not as well heated in the Ar-He jet compared to the Ar-H₂ jet. Where the surrounding atmosphere is pure argon instead of air (in a controlled atmosphere chamber), he radial velocity and temperature distributions are broadened, and if the velocities are about the same, the temperatures are higher. The use of nozzle shields delays the air pumping and increases both the velocity and surface temperature of the particles. However, the velocity increase in this case does not seem to be an advantage for coating properties.     

超音速等离子喷涂NiCr-Cr3C2工艺的参数优化

采用四因素三水平正交试验,通过在线监测喷涂粒子的温度和速度,对电流、电压、喷涂距离和主气流量四个超音速等离子喷涂的主要参数进行优化设计.结果表明:四个因素对喷涂粒子温度的影响均较大,电压和主气流量对喷涂粒子速度的影响较大;优化的工艺参数为电压150 V、电流400A、喷涂距离85 cm、氩气流量4.2m3/h,采用该优...     

A Particle-Tracking-Velocimetry (PTV) Investigation of Liquid Injection in a DC Plasma Jet

The present article describes experimental results of liquid injection in a thermal plasma jet by particle-tracking velocimetry (PTV). This technique delivers an in-situ real-time analysis of the liquid breakup and measures the velocities and the trajectories of the particles. The observations were done within the 10 mm surrounding the injection location where the plasma brightness is considerable. First, a validation of the proposed investigation method was carried out in a slower plasma jet. Subsequently, PTV measurements within faster plasma jets, resulting in a set of trajectories, were compared with trajectories achieved through optical diagnostics based on a simple shadow-graph technique proposed by Damiani et al. [Injection d’un liquide au sein d’un jet plasma thermique: optimisation de la trajectoire des particules, Proceedings of Congrès Francophone de Techniques Laser, CFTL 2010, Vandoeuvre lès nancy, France, 2010 (in French)]. These trajectories indicated that a higher plasma flow rate was required to spray all droplet sizes in the axis of the flow, thereby enabling an optimal spraying (then coating) application for producing nanostructured thin layers. This study showed that the liquid injection parameters are of main importance to obtain optimal injection and plasma parameters to achieve the required coating properties.     

In-situ particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC Arc plasma thermal sprays

Particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC arc plasma thermal sprays are reported in this article. Experiments were performed using a conventional DC are argon-hydrogen plasma with two 7 wt % yttria-stabilized zirconia powders injected transversely into the plasma jet. Measurements were performed along the axis of the plasma jet as well as at a number of radial locations at several axial positions. It was found that transverse injection of the powder results in the aerodynamic size classification of the powder with the large particles penetrating further across the plasma jet than the smaller particles, which were more readily swept by the high momentum of the plasma jet. Consequently, the particle temperatures were influenced by their degree of penetration into the core of the plasma jet. Average particle temperatures showed a good degree of uniformity radially and decayed with increasing downstream distance. When nanoclustered particles were injected into the plasma, significant differences in particle velocities and temperatures were observed in comparison to the conventional powder under the same plasma operating and particle injection conditions. These differences were attributed to the penetration characteristics of the powder into the plasma jet and the consequent effects on the particle heat up. Hence, axial injection of powder into plasma jets may provide more uniform and axisymmetric particle property distributions compared to the transverse injection schemes.     

Clogging and Lump Formation During Atmospheric Plasma Spraying with Powder Injection Downstream the Plasma Gun

This study aimed to numerically and experimentally investigate lump formation during atmospheric plasma spraying with powder injection downstream the plasma gun exit. A first set of investigations was focused on the location and orientation of the powder port injector. It turned out impossible to keep the coating quality while avoiding lumps by simply moving the powder injector. A new geometry of the powder port ring holder was designed and optimized to prevent nozzle clogging, and lump formation using a gas screen. This solution was successfully tested for applications with Ni-5wt.%Al and ZrO₂-7wt.%Y₂O₃ powders used in production. The possible secondary effect of plasma jet shrouding by the gas screen, and its consequence on powder particles prior to impact was also studied.