The politics of electricity deregulation in Sweden: the art of acting on multiple arenas

This article investigates the deregulation of the Swedish electricity industry as a political process. Discussions about deregulation started in the late 1980s. A first step in the process was the corporatization of the Swedish state-owned utility Vattenfall in 1992. The deregulatory process culminated with the new Electricity Law, which entered into force in 1996. We investigate in historical depth how a diverse range of actors contributed to shaping both the new institutional environment and the political discourse. The article scrutinizes not only the formal political decision-making process and the activities of a variety of ministries, boards and agencies, but also the processes by which energy companies and other relevant industrial actors influenced the outcome of the regulatory reforms. We explicitly focus on activities taking place on both political and business arenas, showing that major stakeholders acted on several arenas simultaneously to influence the deregulatory process and that the large power companies were most skilful in doing so. We also show that activities on the political and business arenas mutually reinforced each other in shaping the new regulatory framework.     

Electricity tariffs based on long-run marginal costs for central grid system of Oman

The electricity tariffs in Oman are subsidized and are based on a cost accounting approach and do not reflect the true cost incurred in generating, transmitting and distributing a kilowatt-hour of electricity at the consumer end. This paper presents the electricity tariff based on the estimation of long-run marginal cost at generation, 33 kV, and 415 voltage level for Ministry of Housing, Electricity & Water (MHEW) interconnected power system of Oman. The result shows that at the generation level a marginal kW costs US$ 75 per year and a marginal kWh costs 2.07 ¢/kWh. These costs increase as we move downstream from generation to consumer end. The average cost of electricity at the consumer end connected at 415 V is 6.52 ¢/kWh or 25.17 Bz/kWh.     

Electricity securitization in China

This paper discusses the past and the status quo of electricity securitization in China. First, the stranded cost securitization in American electricity industry and the ongoing securitization progress in emerging market countries are investigated, which enlightens the way of electricity securitization in China. Through analysis of electricity industry in China, the paper proposes constructive policy suggestions for regulators who intend to prompt securitization to develop electricity infrastructure, and detailed recommendations for companies who plan to raise money at reduced cost. It is concluded that even though it is at the very beginning stage in China, securitization not only provides financing for investment projects, but also speeds up the reform by stranded cost securitization, a novel idea for electricity industry in China.     

The theory of maximum kW demand charges for electricity

The kilowatt (kW) demand charge characterizes most electricity price schedules for industrial customers, yet it has not been analysed thoroughly (compared with time-of-use rates). This article shows how such charges complicate interpretations of past estimates of the industrial demand for electricity. Using a utility maximization (cost minimization) model, we derive consistent demand curves, which are shown potentially to be subject to discontinuities.     

Electricity intensity in UK industry

Continuing a recent line of investigation, the issue of electricity use in industry is examined with the aim of presenting a more satisfactory explanation of the growth in overall electricity intensity. The present analysis deals with the changing composition of industrial production at a highly disaggregated level and the significant part that this has played in increasing the electricity-output ratio. Although the ratio has grown at 2% per annum, once allowance is made for the compositional effect and for changes in the level of private generation, electricity intensity appears to have been remarkably constant over the 1970s.     

Electricity regulation and electricity market reforms in China

The electricity industry of China has been in a process of reforms since the 1980s. This paper gives a review on the three main stages of reforms in China so as to trace out key features of various reform measures including those for power investment financing, the separation between government and power enterprises, and the division between power generation firms and power grids. The findings suggest that further regulatory change in China's electricity market reform is necessary when integration of the electricity markets and increased competition are paving the way ahead for a market-oriented structure. Prospective electricity regulation in the form of a strong legal system and effective institutions that protect market competition and promote appropriate incentives for efficiency are suggested in the paper.     

电力市场化改革中的终端电力能源效率问题

提高终端电力能源效率,是实现电力可持续发展的重要保障。然而,从我国电力市场化改革的进程来看,终端电力能源效率问题在很大程度上被忽视,甚至还受到了一定的负面影响。如何将终端电力能源效率问题综合纳入电力改革进程,采取妥善的应对措施促进终端电力能源效率的持续提高,是我国电力改革所面临的一项重大挑战。本文试图分析英、美两国电力市场化改革中针对终端电力能源效率问题所采取的政策措施,并探讨其对我国的启示意义。     

Electricity demand in Kazakhstan

Properties of electricity demand in transition economies have not been sufficiently well researched mostly due to data limitations. However, information on the properties of electricity demand is necessary for policy makers to evaluate effects of price changes on different consumers and obtain demand forecasts for capacity planning. This study estimates Kazakhstan's aggregate demand for electricity as well as electricity demand in the industrial, service, and residential sectors using regional data. Firstly, our results show that price elasticity of demand in all sectors is low. This fact suggests that there is considerable room for price increases necessary to finance generation and distribution system upgrading. Secondly, we find that income elasticity of demand in the aggregate and all sectoral models is less than unity. Of the three sectors, electricity demand in the residential sector has the lowest income elasticity. This result indicates that policy initiatives to secure affordability of electricity consumption to lower income residential consumers may be required. Finally, our forecast shows that electricity demand may grow at either 3% or 5% per year depending on rates of economic growth and government policy regarding price increases and promotion of efficiency. We find that planned supply increases would be sufficient to cover growing demand only if real electricity prices start to increase toward long-run cost-recovery levels and policy measures are implemented to maintain the current high growth of electricity efficiency.     

Causal responsibility and peak load pricing

This article clarifies the basis for peak load pricing when some customers have a steady demand and others have a specific peak period demand. Causal responsibility for peak capacity rests on both types of customers. Peles, in this journal, has proposed that electricity consumption beyond the off-peak period monthly average be priced at a higher rate than other consumption. Customers consuming only on the peak would face higher prices than those who consumed relatively less during the peak. However, such a price structure can discourage economic off-peak consumption and encourage uneconomic peak period consumption. Both steady and nonsteady demanders must face the same price signal during peak periods for the achievement of efficiency, so long as each group imposes the same costs on the system.     

Households’ self-selection of dynamic electricity tariffs

Offering electricity consumers time-differentiated tariffs may reduce peak consumption if consumers choosing the tariffs are demand responsive. However, one concern is that time-differentiated tariffs may attract consumers who benefit without responding to the price, simply because they have a favourable consumption pattern. It is thus important to understand on which basis consumers choose between tariffs. We model the choice as a function of compensating welfare measures, and use a discrete choice model on data from a residential dynamic pricing experiment. The results indicate that higher demand flexibility will tend to increase the propensity to select dynamic tariffs, while consumption patterns do not influence tariff choice significantly.     

The pricing and allocation of electrical energy

Realizing that development planning is a continuous and sequential process utilizing the mobilization and efficient use of resources over space and time, this paper develops a suitable model to enhance the likelihood that economic efficiency will be obtained in the pricing and allocation of electrical energy in the USA. Within the structure developed, what will happen to the generating capacity profile is shown, as well as what will happen to the consumption and price over the period 1980–1990.     

Short- and long-run marginal cost pricing: On their alleged equivalence

The equivalence between short-run marginal cost (SRMC) and long-run marginal cost (LRMC) in a fully adjusted equilibrium has been proved over and over again. In the literature dealing with public utility pricing, this basic result has been taken to imply that it is optimal to set prices at LRMC. Important contributions to this literature are reviewed in this paper. The equivalence, however, is valid only under the very restrictive assumption that the capacity can be varied continuously. This means that indivisibilities, irreversibilities and durability of investments are ignored. Where such phenomena exist, as in electricity production and distribution, pricing according to LRMC is neither theoretically valid nor applicable. It is not surprising that it has been difficult for public utilities to define the LRMC concept operationally; average cost concepts are used as ‘approximations’. Under these circumstances we find it advisable to dispense with the LRMC concept altogether and rely on pricing based on SRMC.     

Electricity privatizations in Sahel: A U-turn?

This paper examines the process of privatization of electrical utilities for the country members of CILLS (Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad and Senegal).These Sahelian countries, the majority of whom rank at the bottom positions of the HDI and present extremely low access rates to modern energy services, together started a process of energy sector reform and energy utility privatization in the 1990s. The reforms, endorsed by the International Financial Institutions, focused on the privatization of the electrical utilities, and encountered many difficulties. The objective of this article is to analyze what happened in each of these nine countries and to understand the reasons that led to a general halt or reversal of the process.The analysis is first introduced by a brief examination of regional energy situations and of the international context in which the reforms took place; this includes the policy guidelines introduced by the IFIs and the investment decisions of energy corporations. We analyze management processes and ownership changes for each country. Finally, the article identifies the problems encountered as a result of reform design and the interaction of behaviors between the governments, the International Corporations and the IFIs; lastly, we draw conclusions.     

地面电热采暖的应用特性

地面电热采暖具有独特的适用性,具有较好的采暖舒适性和节能效果,是一种值得推广使用的采暖方式。     

在能源分析中采用等效电方法

本文分析了目前使用的"当量热值法"和"等价值法"两种能源换算方法存在的问题。其中,当量热值法只看能源所含热量大小,忽略不同能源的品位和做功能力的差别,而导致节能评价中出现谬误;等价值法在评价二次能源时考虑实际对应的一次能源量,但由于采用的是全国平均值,在面临实际问题时仍然不能明确给出各个环节的能源损失大小,而在评价一些能源转换环节时出现逻辑矛盾。为了解决以上能源核算和节能措施评价中的问题,本文提出一种综合了能源的数量和品位的"等效电法",某种能源换算为等效电,反映了其在当前工艺和技术水平下的最大做功能力。分析与大批实例表明,采用等效电法可以清楚地给出能源输送与转换各个环节的损失与流通状况,并能够满足能源统计平衡的要求,同时还可以对各种能源转换方式和用能方式做出较科学的分析评价。     

技术进步、结构调整与电力能源消费效率

本文采用对数平均的LMDI方法对1998～2007年的电能强度变动趋势进行了分解分析。结果表明:电能强度的降低主要得益于技术进步的贡献,尽管技术进步的贡献呈下降趋势;而产业结构变化,无论六大类产业结构还是两位数产业结构对电能强度的下降均具有抑制作用。文章分析了2001年以来电能强度小幅上升的原因,并进一步探讨了提高电力消费效率的对策。     

Electricity theft: a comparative analysis

Electricity theft can be in the form of fraud (meter tampering), stealing (illegal connections), billing irregularities, and unpaid bills. Estimates of the extent of electricity theft in a sample of 102 countries for 1980 and 2000 are undertaken. The evidence shows that theft is increasing in most regions of the world. The financial impacts of theft are reduced income from the sale of electricity and the necessity to charge more to consumers. Electricity theft is closely related to governance indicators, with higher levels of theft in countries without effective accountability, political instability, low government effectiveness and high levels of corruption. Electricity theft can be reduced by applying technical solutions such as tamper-proof meters, managerial methods such as inspection and monitoring, and in some cases restructuring power systems ownership and regulation.     

日本煤炭及电煤贸易与价格管理

3.11地震后日本煤电需求有所上升,其通过权益煤的获得,积极参与煤矿、铁路、港口、船舶等相关运输系统建设,以及长期价格协议,在国际大宗商品贸易领域获得了较大的影响力和一定的控制力,并以此稳定了煤炭供应及进口煤炭价格。更为重要的是,日本通过煤、电价格联动机制,梯级电价制度及公开透明的公众监督机制,逐步降低了终端电价,其相关经验值得我研究借鉴。     

浅谈利用高炉煤气发电技术

经济的快速发展，电力供应的紧张以及炼钢、炼铁企业高炉煤气的排放与环境保护的矛盾，这一系列问题都亟待解决。利用高炉煤气发电，已经成为解决这些问题的较好途径之一。本文将蒸汽轮机机组、燃气轮机机组、燃气内燃机机组等三种发电形式的优缺点作了比较、分析，认为采用燃气内燃机机组发电是利用多余高炉煤气最经济、实用的途径。