Integrated Surface–Subsurface Modeling of Fuxianhu Lake Catchment, Southwest China

This paper describes an integrated surface–subsurface modeling study of the Fuxianhu Lake catchment (southwest China). Pollution threats to this important water resource have led to the need to evaluate transport pathways and the overall water balance of the catchment. Catchment inputs to the lake include river inflows, direct overland flow and groundwater discharge, which are incorporated into a mathematical model of the system. Surface runoff and groundwater recharge are estimated using a parsimonious soil–vegetation modeling approach, while groundwater flow is based on the MODFLOW-2005 code. Overland flow and stream discharge are coupled to the groundwater regime through the soil layer and are routed through the catchment to account for surface water flow pathways. The model is tested using the V-catchment benchmark problem and is compared to existing models to demonstrate accuracy and capability. Application of the model to the Fuxianhu catchment provides for the first-order approximation of the average catchment water balance, which comprises such components as evapotranspiration losses (37% of rainfall), surface runoff to the lake (37% of rainfall), and groundwater discharge to the lake (8% of rainfall), amongst others. The computationally efficient approach to surface–subsurface modeling adopted in this investigation presents as an alternative to more complex methods, and allows for the rapid assessment of flow pathways at the catchment scale. An erratum to this article can be found at     

森林集水区水文效应的研究

对油松山杨林水区和经济过抚育间伐后的集水区进行了分析的结果表明：水文过程线主要取决于降雨过程，产流特点是径流系数小，洪水含沙量低。一方面两集水区的水文特片值均较小，充分体现了森林良好的水源涵养作用；另一方面，两集水区在洪水起伏量，水文响应，单位面积洪量方面差异不大，表明适量间伐对集水区水文状况的影响很小。本文针对森林集水区沟道洪水径流量与降雨量，降雨强度，前期降雨量，土壤水分条件关系密切的特点，建     

Estimation of Clark’s Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph Parameters and Development of Direct Surface Runoff Hydrograph

We present a method to estimate Time of Concentration (T _c) and Storage Coefficient (R) to develop Clark’s Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (CIUH). T _c is estimated from Time Area Diagram of the catchment and R is determined using optimization approach based on Downhill Simplex technique (code written in FORTRAN). Four different objective functions are used in optimization to determine R. The sum of least squares objective function is used in a novel way by relating it to slope of a linear regression best fit line drawn between observed and simulated peak discharge values to find R. Physical parameters (delineation, land slope, stream lengths and associated drainage areas) of the catchment are derived from SPOT satellite imageries of the basin using ERDAS: Arc GIS is used for geographic data processing. Ten randomly selected rainfall–runoff events are used for calibration and five for validation. Using CIUH, a Direct surface runoff hydrograph (DSRH) is developed. Kaha catchment (5,598 km²), part of Indus river system, located in semi-arid region of Pakistan and dominated by hill torrent flows is used to demonstrate the applicability of proposed approach. Model results during validation are very good with model efficiency of more than 95% and root mean square error of less than 6%. Impact of variation in model parameters T _c and R on DSRH is investigated. It is identified that DSRH is more sensitive to R compared to T _c. Relatively equal values of R and T _c reveal that shape of DSRH for a large catchment depends on both runoff diffusion and translation flow effects. The runoff diffusion effect is found to be dominant.     

Estimation of a Unique Pair of Nash Model Parameters: An Optimization Approach

Water resources planning and management requires hydrologic models to estimate runoff from a catchment. For catchments with limited data, the choice of model and identification of its parameters is very important for development of a direct runoff hydrograph. A method is presented to determine a unique pair of hydrologic parameters of the Nash Model, number of linear cascade (n) and storage coefficient (k), using optimization based on Downhill Simplex technique. In this study physical parameters of the catchment are derived from (SPOT) satellite imageries of the basin using ERDAS software. Four different objective functions of varying complexity are tested to find the best solution. Weighted root mean square error (RMSE) and Model Efficiency (Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient) are used to evaluate the model performance. Using the NASH model, a direct surface runoff hydrograph (DSRH) is developed. Kaha catchment is part of Indus river system and is located in the semi-arid region of Pakistan. This catchment is dominated by hill torrent flows and is used in this work to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed method. Ten randomly selected rainfall-runoff events are used for calibration and five events are used for validation. Model results during validation are very promising with model efficiency exceeding 93% and error in peak discharge under 8%. The sensitivity of the Nash model output in response to variation in hydrologic parameters n and k is also investigated. When evaluating the hydrologic response of large catchments, model output is more sensitive to n as compared to k indicating that the runoff diffusion phenomenon is dominant compared to translation flow effects.     

Modeling of Surface Runoff in Xitiaoxi Catchment,China

Xitiaoxi catchment is one of the most important catchments in the Taihu basin in China. Due to its significant contribution of surface runoff and associated nutrients input to Lake Taihu, understanding of the processes of surface runoff in this catchment is, therefore, of primary importance in quantifying water and nutrient balances for Lake Taihu. The generation of surface runoff in the catchment is mainly controlled by rainfall and land cover, so the variety of surface runoff in Xitiaoxi catchment is seasonal. Moreover, the annual change of surface runoff is distinct. Because of the diversity of land use and variety of hydrological characteristics, numerical simulation of the generation of surface runoff over this catchment is not straightforward. In this paper, attempts were made in applying the Large Scale Catchment Model (LASCAM) to Xitiaoxi catchment. The Xitiaoxi catchment is divided into 47 subcatchments connected via a river network based on topology. The model was first run in an optimization mode to calibrate the parameters against the observed runoff for the period of 1968–1977, and then was run in a prediction mode to try to reproduce the runoff for the next 10 years from 1978 to 1987. The model indicates that saturation excess runoff is probably the dominant process for the catchment. The modeling results indicate that water storage in shallow soils near the stream has a high correlation with daily rainfall, while the water storage changes in deep aquifers demonstrate an annual change trend, showing a rising level for wet seasons and a declining level for dry seasons. The success in modeling surface runoff leads to confidence in modeling nutrients transport as the next step of modeling work.     

A real-time flood forecasting model based on maximum-entropy spectral analysis: II. Application

The MESA-based model, developed in the first paper, for real-time flood forecasting was verified on five watersheds from different regions of the world. The sampling time interval and forecast lead time varied from several minutes to one day. The model was found to be superior to a state-space model for all events where it was difficult to obtain prior information about model parameters. The mathematical form of the model was found to be similar to a bivariate autoregressive (AR) model, and under certain conditions, these two models became equivalent.Notation A _k parameter matrix of the bivariate AR model - B backshift operator in time series analysis - eT forecast error (vector) at timet = T - _t uncorrelated random series (white noise) - F _k forward extension matrix of the entropy model forkth lag - I identity matrix - m order of the entropy model - N number of observations - P order of the AR model - Q _p peak of the direct runoff hydrograph - R correlation matrix - t _p time to peak of the direct runoff hydrograph - ₁ coefficient of variation - ₂ ratio of absolute error to the mean - forecasted runoff - x _i observed runoff - mean of the observed runoff - X ^–1 inverse ofX matrix - X* transpose of theX matrix Abbreviations AIC Akaike information criterion - AR autoregressive (model) - AR(p) autoregressive process of thepth order - ARIMA autoregressive integrated moving average (model) - acf autocorrelation function - ccf cross-correlation function - FLT forecast lead time - MESA maximum entropy spectral analysis - MSE mean square error - STI sampling time interval     

Determination of optimal unit hydrographs by linear programming

A unit hydrograph (UH) obtained from past storms can be used to predict a direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) based on the effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) of a new storm. The objective functions in commonly used linear programming (LP) formulations for obtaining an optimal UH are (1) minimizing the sum of absolute deviations (MSAD) and (2) minimizing the largest absolute deviation (MLAD). This paper proposes two alternative LP formulations for obtaining an optimal UH, namely, (1) minimizing the weighted sum of absolute deviations (MWSAD) and (2) minimizing the range of deviations (MRNG). In this paper the predicted DRHs as well as the regenerated DRHs by using the UHs obtained from different LP formulations were compared using a statistical cross-validation technique. The golden section search method was used to determine the optimal weights for the model of MWSAD. The numerical results show that the UH by MRNG is better than that by MLAD in regenerating and predicting DRHs. It is also found that the model MWSAD with a properly selected weighing function would produce a UH that is better in predicting the DRHs than the commonly used MSAD.Notations M number of effective rainfall increments - N number of direct runoff hydrograph ordinates - R number of storms - MSAD minimize sum of absolute deviation - MWSAD minimize weighted sum of absolute deviation - MLAD minimize the largest absolute deviation - MRNG minimize the range of deviation - RMSE root mean square error - P _m effective rainfall in time interval [(m–1)t,mt] - Q _n direct runoff at discrete timent - U _k unit hydrograph ordinate at discrete timekt - W _n weight assigned to error associated with estimatingQ _n - _n ⁺ error associated with over-estimation ofQ _n - _n ^– error associated with under-estimation ofQ _n - _max ⁺ maximum positive error in fitting direct runoff hydrograph - _max ^– maximum negative error in fitting direct runoff hydrograph - _max largest absolute error in fitting obtained direct runoff - E _r,1 thelth error criterion measuring the fit between the observed DRHs and the predicted (or reproduced) DRHs for therth storm - E ₁ averaged value of error criterion overR storms     

On the parametric approach to unit hydrograph identification

Unit hydrograph identification by the parametric approach is based on the assumption of a proper analytical form for its shape, using a limited number of parameters. This paper presents various suitable analytical forms for the instantaneous unit hydrograph, originated from known probability density functions or transformations of them. Analytical expressions for the moments of area of these form versus their definition parameters are theoretically derived. The relation between moments and specific shape characteristics are also examined. Two different methods of parameter estimation are studied, the first being the well-known method of moments, while the second is based on the minimization of the integral error between derived and recorded flood hydrographs. The above tasks are illustrated with application examples originated from case studies of catchments in Greece.Notations A catchment area - a,b,c definition parameters (generallya is a scale parameter, whileb andc are shape parameters) - C _v coefficient of variation - C _s skewness coefficient - D net rainfall duration - f( ) probability density function (PDF) - F( ) cumulative (probability) distribution function (CDF) - g( ) objective function - H net rainfall depth - H ₀ unit (net) rainfall depth (=10 mm) - I(t) net hyetograph - i(t) standardized net hyetograph (SNH) - I _n n ^th central moment of the standardized net hyetograph - Q(t) surface runoff hydrograph - q(t) standardized surface runoff hyrograph (SSRH) - Q _n n ^th central moment of the standardized surface runoff hydrograph - S _D (t) S-curve derived from a unit hydrograph of durationD - s(t) standardizedS-curve (SSC) - t time - T _D flood duration of the unit hydrographU _D (t) - T ₀ flood duration of the instantaneous unit hydrographU ₀(t) (= right bound of the functionU ₀(t)) - t _U IUH lag time (defined as the time from the origin to the center of area of IUH or SIUH) - t _I time from the origin to the center of the area of the net hyetograph - t _Q time from the origin to the center of the area of the surface runoff hydrograph - t _p time from the origin to the peak of IUH (or SIUH) - U _D (t) unit hydrograph for rainfall of durationD (DUH) - U _o (t) instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH) - u(t) standardized instantaneous unit hydrograph (SIUH) - U _n nth central moment of area of IUH - U _n nth moment of IUH about the origin - U _n nth moment of IUH about the right bound (when exists) - V surface runoff volume - V ₀ volume corresponding to the unit hydrograph     

基于雪岭云杉树轮的阿克苏河干流冬季径流重建

基于阿克苏河上游高山区采集的雪岭云杉树轮样芯构建了雪岭云杉树轮宽度年表,结合阿克苏河干流径流数据解析了雪岭云杉长期生长与阿克苏河干流径流关系,并重建了阿克苏河干流1813—2015年冬季径流序列。结果表明:利用雪岭云杉树轮宽度年表重建的阿克苏河干流1813—2015年冬季径流序列模拟值与实测值吻合度较高,重建径流序列稳定可靠;1813—2015年阿克苏河干流冬季多年平均流量为82.19 m~3/s,共出现5次持续丰水期和3次持续枯水期,最长的枯水段持续17年(1943—1959年);阿克苏河干流冬季径流变化存在51 a、29 a、16 a周期,第一主周期为51 a。     

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph for Al Fara'a Catchment in the West Bank

Abstract

Synthetic unit hydrographs are frequently used to estimate hydrograph characteristics when observed data are not available. A number of synthetic unit hydrograph approaches are available, but the ones that found widespread use are those based on models of Snyder, Clark, and the U.S. Soil Conservation Services (SCS). The major goal of the study is to develop a synthetic unit hydrograph for Wadi Al Fara'a Catchment, which is un-gauged and considered one of the West Bank's most important catchments. Unfortunately, none of the wadis in the West Bank are gauged and flow records are not available; therefore, it is hoped that this method will be applied successfully for Wadi Al Fara'a catchment and the results can hopefully to be applied to all West Bank catchments, which will facilitate estimation of potential runoff in the whole West Bank.     

基于径流侵蚀功率的流域次暴雨输沙模型研究——以岔巴沟流域为例

流域次暴雨侵蚀产沙模型研究是国内外土壤侵蚀研究的重点领域之一。提出了基于径流深和洪峰流量模数两个流域次暴雨洪水特征参数的径流侵蚀功率的概念;利用岔巴沟曹坪水文站1959至1990年间历年实测的次暴雨洪水径流泥沙资料,系统研究了该流域次暴雨径流侵蚀功率与流域输沙模数之间的相关关系,建立和验证了基于径流侵蚀功率的岔巴沟流域次暴雨输沙模型。结果表明,岔巴沟流域次暴雨径流侵蚀功率与流域输沙模数之间具有极显著的幂函数相关关系;模型验证期的次暴雨输沙模数模拟值与实测值之间具有较好的一致性。     

沭河流域洪水预报的产汇流组合方案优选

针对沂沭泗流域洪水预报问题,选择沭河流域重沟站洪水事件为研究对象,评估了两种产流方法和三种坡面汇流方法的不同组合下洪水模拟精度。 结果表明,CN 曲线数法是研究区最优的产流计算方法,斯奈德单位线和 SCS 单位线均适用于该流域的坡面汇流;CN 曲线数-斯奈德单位线组合是沭河流域最优的产汇流组合方案,洪水预报精度达到乙级以上。     

塔里木河流域汛期地表径流变化趋势和预测分析

基于塔里木河流域三源流和干流1957-2008年实测月地表径流数据,运用Mann-Kendall非参数检验和小波变换等方法,探究三源流和干流汛期地表径流变化趋势,并建立周期性叠加趋势模型预测其2009-2025年地表径流量特征和变化趋势。结果表明:近50多年来,塔里木河源流7、8、9月地表径流均呈增加趋势,干流7、8、9月地表径流均呈减少趋势,反映出源流用水量持续增加挤占干流水资源量。根据预测,塔里木河三源流2009-2025年,7月和8月多年平均地表径流量属平偏丰水期,9月属偏丰水期;7月和9月地表径流量呈增加趋势,8月地表径流量呈下降趋势。塔里木河干流2009-2025年,7月多年平均地表径流量属平偏丰水期,8月和9月属偏丰水期;7月和8月地表径流量呈增加趋势,9月地表径流量无明显增大或减小趋势。     

Study of Drawdown–Drain Discharge Relationship and its Application in Design of Cost Effective Subsurface Drainage System in Mugogo Swamp, Busogo, Rwanda

Mostly the swamps in Rwanda are surrounded by volcanic hills with small streams flowing to discharge runoff and seepage water. Mugogo swamp is located in Busogo sector, Musanze district, North province. Total area of the swamp is approximately 50 ha. The swamp is surrounded by hills and elevated volcanic rocky terrains. Potato is the main crop cultivated in the swamp. The average production rate of potato is 7 MT/ha which is very low compared to 12 MT/ha in well drained areas. During rainy season seepage water and runoff water from the surrounding hills cause the waterlogged condition of the swamp and affecting the potato cultivation and land productivity. The remedial measure for this swamp is to divert separately the runoff and seepage water from surrounding catchment area and then remove the recharge water by pumping through a system of subsurface drains. Hydraulic head–drain discharge relationship can be fitted with quadratic equation. Equivalent drainable porosity and equivalent hydraulic conductivity are determined as 0.105 m/day and 0.34% respectively for drain depth of 40 cm from soil surface. Effective hydraulic conductivity in the soil profile shows that its average value in the top 15 cm of soil layer is 0.17 m/day and that in the remaining depth up to impermeable layer is 0.015 m/day. Third degree polynomial expressions are made for Head–hydraulic conductivity and head–drainable porosity relationships. The nonlinear relation of hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity with drawdown shows that the proximity of Kinoni stream does not affect drainage parameters of the area because of less seepage from the stream. The study also reveals that adoption of 7 m drain spacing is very less if crop parameter is not considered and will result higher drain cost. Drainage coefficient of 5 mm/day is arrived considering the rainfall distribution, infiltration rate of soil, allowable water logging tolerance of potato crop. Required drain spacings are calculated for different drainage coefficients of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 mm/day under different drawdown conditions to plot subsurface drainage characteristic curves of the swamp. These curves are useful to directly read the drain spacing and drain depth for the required drainage coefficient without going for tedious calculations. Cost analysis shows that the ratio of drain spacing to drain depth can be a decisive factor to select best combination of drain depth and drain spacing. For drainage coefficient of 5 mm/day, optimum drain spacing-depth ratio is found as 7.2 with a cost of 0.689 million Frw/ha. For different drainage coefficients in the swamp, the drain depth of 1.5 m is crucial and optimum cost occurs at this depth. It is also found that any increase in drawdown beyond the drawdown at critical drain depth will not reduce the cost significantly.     

An Approximately Semi-Analytical Model for Describing Surface Runoff of Rainwater Over Sloped Land

Accurate prediction of surface runoff is critical to watershed management. In this research a semi-analytical model was adopted to solve the kinematic wave equation based on the assumption that the rate of overland-flow depth change is proportional to the rainfall excess. Simulations were compared with the results from laboratory experiments at various rain intensities. Parameters of infiltration rate and Manning’s roughness coefficient were determined. The accuracy of the semi-analytical model was evaluated by numerical simulations. The predicted outflow rates from the numerical simulations agreed well with the observed data. Further, our study indicated that the ratio (c) of the overland-flow depth change to the rainfall excess was a power function of the rain intensity. The depth and velocity of water flow at any time and distance could be calculated with the semi-analytical model. Hydraulic parameters including Reynolds number, Froude number, hydraulic shear stress, stream power and Darcy-Weisbach friction factor characterizing the dynamic features of overland flow of rainwater were calculated based on calculated overland-flow depth and velocity. The proposed analytical method can provide a new way to predict infiltration and runoff over sloped land.     

基于Nash 瞬时单位线法的渗透坡面汇流模拟

基于Nash瞬时单位线法,结合Horton土壤入渗经验模型,并考虑植被对降雨的截流作用,建立了渗透坡面汇流计算的数学模型。以矩形坡面为研究对象,基于其汇流时间-面积特性,结合等流时线法,推导建立了Nash瞬时单位线参数n、K的确定方法。其中,参数n的值为1.0,K的值与坡面汇流时间相等,相当于单一线性水库。应用本文建立的模型,对林地渗透坡面降雨径流进行计算,并与实测值进行比较。结果表明,计算值与实测值的变化趋势基本吻合,初步验证了本文方法的合理性。     

Overland Flow on a Pervious Surface

ABSTRACT

This article presents the analytical solutions for overland runoff hydrographs produced by a uniform rainfall with decay soil infiltration rates. It was found that the kinematic wave travel time through a catchment under such a nonuniform rainfall excess is not a constant, but varies between the time of concentration and the time of equilibrium according to the soil moisture condition. The analytical solutions reveal that kinematic wave travel times are part of the hydrograph convolution process and can hardly be measured from observed hydrographs. The findings of this article suggest that the time of concentration of a small catchment shall be estimated by velocity-based methods rather than those empirical formulas developed for and calibrated by the time difference between the center of mass of the rainfall excess and the inflection point on recession of the observed runoff hydrograph.     

基于多尺度熵理论的葛洲坝水库对长江干流径流影响研究

为研究葛洲坝水库对长江水文系统复杂性的影响,采用多尺度熵理论对长江干流宜昌、汉口、大通3个主要控制水文站的径流量序列进行分析。结果表明:长江干流径流序列复杂度从上游到下游表现为逐渐增加趋势;葛洲坝水库蓄水对长江干流径流序列结构复杂性产生了一定的影响,改变了天然条件下的系统复杂度,改变程度随距离的增大而减弱。     

The influence of major dams on hydrology through the drainage network of the Sacramento River basin,California

This paper reports basinwide patterns of hydrograph alteration via statistical and graphical analysis from a network of long‐term streamflow gauges located various distances downstream of major dams and confluences in the Sacramento River basin in California, USA. Streamflow data from 10 gauging stations downstream of major dams were divided into hydrologic series corresponding to the periods before and after dam construction. Pre‐ and post‐dam flows were compared with respect to hydrograph characteristics representing frequency, magnitude and shape: annual flood peak, annual flow trough, annual flood volume, time to flood peak, flood drawdown time and interarrival time. The use of such a suite of characteristics within a statistical and graphical framework allows for generalising distinct strategies of flood control operation that can be identified without any a priori knowledge of operations rules. Dam operation is highly dependent on the ratio of reservoir capacity to annual flood volume (impounded runoff index). Dams with high values of this index generally completely cut off flood peaks thus reducing time to peak, drawdown time and annual flood volume. Those with low values conduct early and late flow releases to extend the hydrograph, increasing time to peak, drawdown time and annual flood volume. The analyses reveal minimal flood control benefits from foothill dams in the lower Sacramento River (i.e. dissipation of the down‐valley flood control signal). The lower part of the basin is instead reliant on a weir and bypass system to control lowland flooding. Data from a control gauge (i.e. with no upstream dams) suggest a background signature of global climate change expressed as shortened flood hydrograph falling limbs and lengthened flood interarrival times at low exceedence probabilities. This research has implications for flood control, water resource management, aquatic and riparian ecosystems and for rehabilitation strategies involving flow alteration and/or manipulation of sediment supplies. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

降水径流特征变化对月水量平衡模型模拟精度及参数的影响

为评估水文模型在变化环境下的可靠性,以两参数月水量平衡模型为例,采用Mann-Kendall法分析降水径流资料在MOPEX数据集中美国本土的104个典型流域的一致性,基于可变模糊理论评价降水径流资料一致性对两参数月水量平衡模型模拟精度的影响,并探讨降水径流资料一致性和流域的气候特征对模型参数的影响。结果表明:研究流域中,92.31%流域的降水或径流资料的一致性遭到破坏;通过可变模糊集评价模型模拟效果,发现降水、径流趋势变化均会削弱水文模型的模拟能力,其中降水一致性破坏是水文模型模拟能力减弱的主要原因,并且该方法能够准确地识别影响模拟能力的次要因素;模型参数C和参数SC均随着流域多年平均径流系数增大而增大,参数C反映了流域的湿润程度,参数SC表征了流域的调蓄能力。研究成果可为防洪、抗旱、水资源规划和管理提供技术支撑。