Emotional design of multimedia learning using background images with motivational cues

Emotional design for multimedia learning can be implemented primarily using aesthetic design elements (e.g., color, shape and layout); however, we still have limited understanding on emotional design using content features visually depicting motivational cues. This study examines how valence and arousal of emotional learning content, generated by background images, in multimedia learning influenced learners' retention of factual knowledge and cognitive load, using a 2 (valence: positive, negative) × 2 (arousal: moderately low, moderately high) between-subjects experiment. The results showed significant interaction effects, implying the positive effects of using moderately low arousing negative images on both recognition and cued-recall test scores. Both scores were significantly lower when moderately high arousing negative images were used; however, they did not differ with increasing arousal of positive images. The emotional content did not influence germane and extraneous loads. Our findings emphasize the need for considering optimal levels of valence and arousal in emotional design.     

Effects of virtual environment platforms on emotional responses

The goal of the current study was to investigate the effects of different virtual environment (VE) technologies (i.e., desktop, head mounted display, or fully immersive platforms) on emotional arousal and task performance. Fifty-three participants were recruited from a college population. Reactivity to stressful VEs was examined in three VE systems from desktop to high-end fully immersive systems. The experiment was a 3 (desktop system, head mounted display, and six wall system) × 2 (high- and low-stressful VE) within subject design, with self-reported emotional arousal and valence, skin conductance, task performance, presence, and simulator sickness examined as dependent variables. Replicating previous studies, the fully immersive system induced the highest sense of presence and the head mounted display system elicited the highest amount of simulator sickness. Extending previous studies, the results demonstrated that VE platforms were associated with different patterns in emotional responses and task performance. Our findings suggest that different VE systems may be appropriate for different scientific purposes when studying stress reactivity using emotionally evocative tasks.     

The influence of virtual presence: Effects on experienced cognitive load and learning outcomes in educational computer games

Does the immersive design of an educational gaming environment affect learners’ virtual presence and how much do they learn? Does virtual presence affect learning? This study tries to answer these questions by examining the differences in virtual presence and learning outcomes in two different computer-based multimedia environments: a gaming environment with high immersive design vs. hypertext learning environment with low immersive design. As the main focus, the effect of virtual presence on learning is also explained and tested. By identifying virtual presence as a variable that may determine learning, it is argued that computer gaming environments present a new challenge for researchers to investigate, particularly, the effects of virtual presence on the immersive design of games in order to help designers to predict which instructional configurations will maximize learning performance. In general, results revealed that the high-immersive gaming environment leads to the strongest form of virtual presence but also decreased learning. Although regression analyses indicate that virtual presence positively influences trivial- and non-trivial learning outcomes, learners who learned in a low-immersive environment outperformed the gaming group. A mediation analysis showed that the relation between virtual presence and non-trivial learning outcomes is partly mediated through increased cognitive load.     

Explaining the split-attention effect: Is the reduction of extraneous cognitive load accompanied by an increase in germane cognitive load?

The phenomenon that the physical integration of verbal and pictorial information sources, compared to their physical separation, enhances learning is known as the split-attention effect. This paper investigates how the split-attention effect can be best explained against the background of cognitive load theory. In an experimental study, students learned about physiological processes with either an integrated or a split-source format. Secondary task performance was used to measure overall cognitive load, whereas subjective ratings were used to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane load individually. Learners with split-source format achieved lower learning outcomes, but did not show worse secondary task performance than learners with integrated format. These results contradict the assumption that only an increase in extraneous load for learners with a split-source format mediates the split-attention effect. Mediation analyses of the subjective load ratings revealed that both, extraneous and germane load contributed to the split-attention effect. These results support the assumption that germane load also plays a crucial role in mediating the split-attention effect.     

Think,feel, bid: the impact of environmental conditions on the role of bidders’ cognitive and affective processes in auction bidding

Environmental conditions and the interplay of cognitive and affective processes both exert influences on bidding behavior. This paper brings the above together, considering how the (external) auction environment determines the impact of (internal) cognitive and affective processes on bidding behavior, assessed in comparison to the optimal bid. Two aspects of the auction environment were considered, namely auction dynamics (low: first-price sealed-bid auction, high: Dutch auction) and value uncertainty (low, high). In a laboratory experiment, we assess bidders’ cognitive workload and emotional arousal through physiological measurements. We find that higher auction dynamics increase the impact of emotional arousal on bid deviations, but not that of cognitive workload. Higher value uncertainty, conversely, increases the impact of cognitive workload on bid deviations, but not that of emotional arousal. Taken together, the auction environment is a critical factor in understanding the nature of the underlying decision process and its impact on bids.     

Learning with desktop virtual reality: Low spatial ability learners are more positively affected

This study aims to verify the learning effectiveness of a desktop virtual reality (VR)-based learning environment, and to investigate the effects of desktop VR-based learning environment on learners with different spatial abilities. The learning outcome was measured cognitively through academic performance. A quasi pretest–posttest experimental design was employed for this study. A total of 431 high school students from four randomly selected schools participated in this study where they were randomly assigned to either experimental or control groups based on intact classes. Findings indicate a significant difference in the performance achievement between the two groups with students performed better using desktop virtual reality. A possible explanation is that the desktop virtual reality instructional intervention has helped to reduce extraneous cognitive load and engages learners in active processing of instructional material to increase germane cognitive load. A significant interaction effect was found between the learning mode and spatial ability with regard to the performance achievement. Further analysis shows a significant difference in the performance of low spatial ability learners in the experimental and control groups, but no statistically significant difference in the performance of high spatial learners in both groups. The results signify that low spatial ability learners' performance, compared with high spatial ability learners, appeared to be more positively affected by the desktop VR-based learning environment which is supported by the ability-as-compensator hypothesis, and can be explained by the cognitive load theory.     

Note-taking while learning hypermedia: Cognitive and motivational considerations

The non-linear format of hypermedia requires the use of self-regulated learning (SRL) processes, including making decisions about which representation to access. The design of hypermedia environments can make these decisions difficult, and may result in extraneous cognitive load. Note-taking, a SRL strategy may offload extraneous cognitive load while learning with hypermedia. This study examined factors related to undergraduate students’ note-taking while learning with hypermedia. Think-aloud, self-report, pretest, and posttest data were collected from 53 undergraduates while they learned about a challenging science topic for 30 min with hypermedia. Results indicated that participants’ prior domain knowledge, as measured by the pretest, did not significantly predict the content of their notes. However, motivation, as measured by a self-report questionnaire, had a significant relationship with the content of the participants’ notes. Specifically, intrinsic motivation had a significant negative relationship while extrinsic motivation had a significant positive relationship with the content of notes. Additionally, there was a significant interaction between the content of the participants’ notes and their use of self-regulatory processes while learning with hypermedia.     

The influence of leads on cognitive load and learning in a hypertext environment

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of leads (or hypertext node previews) on cognitive load and learning. Leads provided a brief summary of information in the linked node, which helped orient the reader to the linked information. Dependent variables included measures of cognitive load: self-report of mental effort, reading time, and event-related desynchronization percentage of alpha, beta and theta brain wave rhythms; and learning performance: a recall task, and tests of domain and structural knowledge. Results indicated that use of leads reduced brain wave activity that may reflect split attention and extraneous cognitive load, and improved domain and structural knowledge acquisition. Further, findings provide insights into differentiating the types of cognitive load apparent in hypertext-assisted learning environments. Use of EEG measures allowed examination of instantaneous cognitive load, which showed that leads may be influencing germane load—reducing mental burden associated with creating coherence between two linked node. The self-report of mental effort measure appears more closely associated with overall and intrinsic load.     

Video game experience predicts virtual, but not real navigation performance

In recent years, studies have shown that video game experience is related to improvements across a variety of cognitive and visuospatial tasks. This study investigated the relationship between prior video game experience and spatial performance in virtual and real environments. Across two experiments, gaming experience was related to performance in desktop virtual environments; those with more video game experience were more accurate in pointing to nonvisible targets. In contrast, gaming experience was unrelated to three different real environment tasks, suggesting that video games may primarily influence perceptual and cognitive abilities in the visual domain over abilities that also involve kinesthetic or vestibular input. Contrary to expectations, gaming experience was also related to performance in immersive virtual environments, which may be related to the use of a joystick interface during immersive travel. Video game experience was also positively related to performance in a dynamic spatial task and to verbal SAT and math SAT scores. Sex differences in desktop virtual navigation and dynamic spatial ability were eliminated when game experience was included as a covariate.     

Effects of different ratios of worked solution steps and problem solving opportunities on cognitive load and learning outcomes

A crucial challenge for instructional designers is to determine the amount of support that is most beneficial for learning. This experiment investigated effects of different ratios of worked solution steps (high assistance) and to-be-solved problem steps (low assistance) on cognitive skill acquisition in geometry. High-school students (N = 125) worked on a geometry lesson in a Cognitive Tutor under five different ratios (from zero worked steps and five to-be-solved steps to four worked steps and one to-be-solved step). Effects on cognitive load and learning outcomes were assessed. We expected the effectiveness of different ratios to vary with the type of learning outcomes (i.e., procedural vs. conceptual knowledge) and the difficulty of the to-be-learned principles. Results showed that for procedural knowledge (but not for conceptual knowledge) problem solving alone was most beneficial for the acquisition of procedural knowledge related to an easy principle. For a difficult principle, no ratio of worked steps and problem solving showed an advantage over another. Problem solving induced more extraneous load than studying worked examples. Thus, in determining optimal amounts of guidance type of knowledge and difficulty of the single to-be learned knowledge chunks should be considered.     

Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Requiring Immersive Presence (CSCLIP): An Introduction

The dramatic increase in distance learning (DL) enrollments in higher education is likely to continue. However, research on DL that includes psychomotor, cognitive, and affective skills is virtually non-existent. Indeed, DL for psychomotor skills has been viewed as impossible. Laboratory coursework, which we define as including the acquisition of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective skills, has become a limiting factor in the growth of DL. What is needed is a synergistic integration of technologies and Human-Computer Interface (HCI) principles from Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), collaborative learning systems, and immersive presence technologies to enable achievement of psychomotor learning objectives. This paper defines the Computer Supported Collaborative Learning requiring Immersive Presence (CSCLIP) research area, and introduces this special issue of Information Systems Frontiers on CSCLIP and the six papers contained herein.This revised version was published online in March 2005 with corrections to the cover date     

Motivational and cognitive benefits of training in immersive virtual reality based on multiple assessments

The main objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) as a medium for delivering laboratory safety training. We specifically compare an immersive VR simulation, a desktop VR simulation, and a conventional safety manual. The sample included 105 first year undergraduate engineering students (56 females).  We include five types of learning outcomes including post‐test enjoyment ratings; pre‐ to post‐test changes in intrinsic motivation and self‐efficacy; a post‐test multiple choice retention test; and two behavioral transfer tests. Results indicated that the groups did not differ on the immediate retention test, suggesting that all three media were equivalent in conveying the basic knowledge. However, significant differences were observed favoring the immersive VR group compared to the text group on the two transfer tests involving the solving problems in a physical lab setting (d = 0.54, d = 0.57), as well as enjoyment (d = 1.44) and increases in intrinsic motivation (d = 0.69) and self‐efficacy (d = 0.60). The desktop VR group scored significantly higher than the text group on one transfer test (d = 0.63) but not the other (d= 0.11), as well as enjoyment (d =1.11) and intrinsic motivation (d =0.83).     

Better to be frustrated than bored: The incidence,persistence, and impact of learners’ cognitive–affective states during interactions with three different computer-based learning environments

We study the incidence (rate of occurrence), persistence (rate of reoccurrence immediately after occurrence), and impact (effect on behavior) of students’ cognitive–affective states during their use of three different computer-based learning environments. Students’ cognitive–affective states are studied using different populations (Philippines, USA), different methods (quantitative field observation, self-report), and different types of learning environments (dialogue tutor, problem-solving game, and problem-solving-based Intelligent Tutoring System). By varying the studies along these multiple factors, we can have greater confidence that findings which generalize across studies are robust. The incidence, persistence, and impact of boredom, frustration, confusion, engaged concentration, delight, and surprise were compared. We found that boredom was very persistent across learning environments and was associated with poorer learning and problem behaviors, such as gaming the system. Despite prior hypothesis to the contrary, frustration was less persistent, less associated with poorer learning, and did not appear to be an antecedent to gaming the system. Confusion and engaged concentration were the most common states within all three learning environments. Experiences of delight and surprise were rare. These findings suggest that significant effort should be put into detecting and responding to boredom and confusion, with a particular emphasis on developing pedagogical interventions to disrupt the “vicious cycles” which occur when a student becomes bored and remains bored for long periods of time.     

Learning technologies: Affective and social issues in computer-supported collaborative learning

This paper is concerned with affective issues in learning technologies in a collaborative context. Traditionally in learning there has been a division between cognition and affect: where cognition is concerned with skills and processes such as thinking and problem-solving and affect with emotional areas such as motivation, attitudes, feelings. Affective issues have been viewed as somewhat problematic in studying learning, so although it is well known that learner attitude, motivation, and emotional state are very important, they have often been excluded from the frame of research, or studied separately from cognitive learning. This position is gradually changing and this paper considers what previous research has been conducted in these areas. It discusses the role of affective factors in three main areas of collaboration: in settings where learners are co-located, in on-line communities and to support and develop socio-emotional skills. It considers relevant developments in these areas, what the outcomes have been and suggests important directions for future research.     

Just-in-time,schematic supportive information presentation during cognitive skill acquisition

Cognitive load theory states that well-designed learning material minimizes extraneous cognitive load and optimizes germane cognitive load within the thresholds of available cognitive resources. In this study, the extraneous cognitive load is minimized by avoiding temporal split attention with regard to supportive information (i.e., conceptual models or ‘theory’) and the germane cognitive load is optimized by using schematic representations of this information to direct learner’s attention to concepts relevant for learning. A 2 × 2 between-groups design with the factors supportive information (before or during practice) and schematic representation (before or during practice) was used to investigate whether this balance between extraneous and germane load leads to more effective and efficient learning. It was found that the ‘supportive during, schema before’ format indeed yielded a higher learning efficiency than the ‘supportive before, schema before’ and the supportive during, schema during’ format but no differences were found for learning effectiveness (i.e., test performance).     

Learning science in a virtual reality application: The impacts of animated-virtual actors’ visual complexity

As the technology in computer graphics advances, Animated-Virtual Actors (AVAs) in Virtual Reality (VR) applications become increasingly rich and complex. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) suggests that complex visual materials could hinder novice learners from attending to the lesson properly. On the other hand, previous studies have shown that visual complexity correlates with presence and may increase the perceived affective quality of the virtual world, towards an optimal experience or flow. Increasing these in VR applications may promote enjoyment and higher cognitive engagement for better learning outcomes. While visually complex materials could be motivating and pleasing to attend to, would they affect learning adversely? We developed a series of VR presentations to teach second-year psychology students about the navigational behaviour of Cataglyphis ants with flat, cartoon, or lifelike AVAs. To assess learning outcomes, we used Program Ratings, which measured perception of learning and perceived difficulty, and retention and transfer tests. The results from 200 students did not reveal any significant differences in presence, perceived affective quality, or learning outcomes as a function of the AVA’s visual complexity. While the results showed positive correlations between presence, perceived affective quality and perception of learning, none of these correlates with perceived difficulty, retention, or transfer scores. Nevertheless, our simulation produced significant improvements on retention and transfer scores in all conditions. We discuss possible explanations and future research directions.     

Measuring flow experience in an immersive virtual environment for collaborative learning

In contexts other than immersive virtual environments, theoretical and empirical work has identified flow experience as a major factor in learning and human–computer interaction. Flow is defined as a ‘holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement’. We applied the concept of flow to modeling the experience of collaborative learning in an immersive virtual environment. The aims were, first, to psychometrically evaluate a measurement model of flow and, second, to test a structural model of flow. Pairs of small teams engaged in collaborative problem‐solving tasks while communicating by way of an immersive virtual environment. Flow was measured after each session, using Guo and Poole's inventory for measuring flow in human–computer interaction. In relation to the first aim, partial‐least‐squares analysis demonstrated strong evidence for the measurement model. In relation to the second aim, the structural model was supported: the effect of learning‐task characteristics on flow experience was mediated by its precursors, with extraneous variables held constant. It is reasoned that the experiment and resultant analysis of this work contributes to the development of measurement models and structural models of flow in immersive virtual environments.     

Outdoor ubiquitous learning or indoor CAL? Achievement and different cognitive loads of college students

The purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in English listening achievement and three types (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane) of cognitive load between outdoor ubiquitous learning (u-learning) and indoor computer-assisted learning (CAL). Participants included 160 university students taking a freshman English course, with 53 males and 107 females. They were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (outdoor u-learning) with 80 participants or a control group (indoor CAL) with 80 participants. The instructional experiment lasted three weeks. The results showed that (a) the experimental group had significantly better English listening achievement than the control group; (b) the experimental group had significantly lower extraneous but higher germane cognitive load than the control group, and both groups did not have a significantly different intrinsic cognitive load; (c) there was a significantly negative relationship between English listening achievement and extraneous cognitive load, a significantly positive relationship between English listening achievement and germane cognitive load, but no significant relationship between English listening achievement and intrinsic cognitive load; and (d) among three types of cognitive loads, only extraneous and germane cognitive loads had a significant correlation. The study may provide some implications for English teaching and u-learning.     

The validation and further development of a multidimensional cognitive load scale for virtual environments

Measuring cognitive load is important in virtual learning environments (VLE). Thus, valid and reliable measures of cognitive load are important to support instructional design in VLE. Through three studies, we investigated the validity and reliability of Leppink's Cognitive Load Scale (CLS) and developed the extraneous cognitive load (EL) dimension into three sub-scales relevant for VLE: EL instructions, EL interaction, and EL environment. We investigated the validity of the measures using the Partial Credit Model (PCM), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and correlations with retention tests. Study 1 (n = 73) investigated the adapted version of the CLS. Study 2 describes the development and validation of the Multidimensional Cognitive Load Scale for Virtual Environments (MCLSVE), with 140 students in higher education. Study 3 tested the generalizability of the results with 121 higher education students in a more complicated VLE. The results provide initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the MCLSVE.