Hypertext annotation: Effects of presentation formats and learner proficiency on reading comprehension and vocabulary learning in foreign languages

This study extends current knowledge by exploring the effect of different annotation formats, namely in-text annotation, glossary annotation, and pop-up annotation, on hypertext reading comprehension in a foreign language and vocabulary acquisition across student proficiencies. User attitudes toward the annotation presentation were also investigated. Data were collected from 83 non-English-majored university students in Taiwan in a 4-week period. Each week participants read 3 passages, each with different annotation formats as a treatment condition and one passage without annotation as a control condition. Posttests of reading comprehension and vocabulary recognition followed each passage. The results indicate that, for reading comprehension, the in-text format led to the lowest performance among all types of annotation, including the control condition. The best performance was observed in the condition where annotations were presented in the pop-up format. No interaction effect between format and proficiency was detected. For vocabulary acquisition, reading passages with hypermedia annotations significantly benefit vocabulary learning for participants of medium and high proficiencies compared with the control condition. No significant differences were found among the 3 formats. The beneficial effect, however, did not extend to low-proficiency participants. Participant feedback revealed a positive attitude toward annotations. Among the 3 annotation formats, the glossary type was considered the least preferred type by participants. Findings of the research provide insights on the design and instruction for online reading.     

Effects of computer-assisted comprehension training in less skilled comprehenders in second grade: A one-year follow-up study

This study examines the effects of a new CAI program designed to remediate text comprehension difficulties in less skilled comprehenders at the beginning of learning to read. In a randomized control trial design, two groups of second grade children experiencing comprehension difficulties were selected and trained using two CAI programs. One of these was designed to assist comprehension processes (experimental group) whereas the other encouraged word decoding (control group). Four tasks were administered using a classical pre-test/training/post-test design: listening comprehension, reading comprehension, vocabulary and comprehension monitoring. In addition, two post-test sessions were conducted: one just after the training and one 11 months later. The experimental group exhibited a greater level of progress in both listening and reading comprehension, with notable lasting effects. In contrast, the results relating to the vocabulary and comprehension monitoring tasks were more mixed. The results are discussed in the light of the possible use of CAI when training higher-level skills such as text comprehension.     

基于预训练模型的机器阅读理解研究综述

近年来深度学习技术不断进步,随着预训练模型在自然语言处理中的应用与发展,机器阅读理解不再单纯地依靠网络结构与词嵌入相结合的方法。预训练语言模型的发展推动了机器阅读理解的进步,在某些数据集上已经超越了人类的表现。简要介绍机器阅读理解以及预训练语言模型的相关概念,综述当下基于预训练模型的机器阅读理解研究进展,对目前预训练模型在相关数据集上的性能进行分析,总结了目前存在的问题并对未来进行展望。     

Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone

Whereas the penetration of mobile phones in Asian countries keeps climbing, little research has explored the application of the short message service (SMS) in second language learning. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of SMS vocabulary lessons of limited lexical information on the small screens of mobile phones. Thirty high school students were randomly distributed into two groups and given two sets of English words either on paper or through SMS messages during two weeks. Students recognized more vocabulary during the post‐test after reading the regular and brief SMS lessons than they did after reading the relatively more detailed print material. Qualitative data from interviews offer information about the learning process as well as the benefits and limitations of m‐learning. Results of the questionnaires show that students in general hold positive attitudes towards learning vocabulary via mobile phone. On the other hand, technological limitations, unfamiliar presentations and learning activities may prevent students from reading SMS lessons.     

A machine learning approach to reading level assessment

Reading proficiency is a fundamental component of language competency. However, finding topical texts at an appropriate reading level for foreign and second language learners is a challenge for teachers. Existing measures of reading level are not well suited to this task, where students may know some difficult topic-related vocabulary items but not have the same level of sophistication in understanding complex sentence constructions. Recent work in this area has shown the benefit of using statistical language processing techniques. In this paper, we use support vector machines to combine features from n-gram language models, parses, and traditional reading level measures to produce a better method of assessing reading level. We explore the use of negative training data to handle the problem of rejecting data from classes not seen in training, and compare the use of detection vs. regression models on this task. As in many language processing problems, we find substantial variability in human annotation of reading level, and explore ways that multiple human annotations can be used in comparative assessments of system performance.     

基于深度学习的机器阅读理解研究综述

机器阅读理解任务在近年来备受关注,它赋予计算机从文本数据中获取知识和回答问题的能力。如何让机器理解自然语言是人工智能领域长期存在的挑战之一,近年来大规模高质量数据集的发布和深度学习技术的运用,使得机器阅读理解取得了快速发展。基于神经网络的端到端的模型结构,基于预训练语言模型以及推理技术的应用,其性能在大规模评测数据集上有很大提升,但距离真正的理解语言还有较大差距。本文对机器阅读理解任务的研究现状与发展趋势进行了综述,主要包括任务划分、机器阅读理解模型与相关技术的分析,特别是基于知识推理的机器阅读理解技术,总结并讨论了该领域的发展趋势。     

片段抽取型机器阅读理解算法研究

针对现有的机器阅读理解模型主要使用循环模型处理文本序列信息,这容易导致训练和预测速度慢且模型预测准确性不高等问题,提出了一种片段抽取型机器阅读理解算法QA-Reader.该算法利用大型预训练语言模型RoBERTa-www-ext获取问题和上下文的词嵌入表示;使用深度可分离卷积和多头自注意力机制进行编码;计算上下文和问题的双向注意力及上下文的自注意力,以融合上下文和问题之间的关联信息,拼接得到最终的语义表征;经过模型编码器预测得到答案,模型针对不可回答的问题计算了其不可回答的概率.在中文片段抽取型机器阅读理解数据集上进行了实验,结果表明QA-Reader模型与基线模型相比,其性能方面EM和F1值分别提高了3.821％、2.740％,训练速度提高了0.089％.     

Comprehension and navigation of networked hypertexts

This study aims to investigate secondary school students' reading comprehension and navigation of networked hypertexts with and without a graphic overview compared to linear digital texts. Additionally, it was studied whether prior knowledge, vocabulary, verbal, and visual working memory moderated the relation between text design and comprehension. Therefore, 80 first‐year secondary school students read both a linear text and a networked hypertext with and without a graphical overview. Logfiles registered their navigation. After reading the text, students answered textbased multiple choice questions and drew mindmaps to assess their structural knowledge of each text content. It was found that both textbased and structural knowledge were lower after reading a networked hypertext than a linear text, especially in students with lower levels of vocabulary. Students took generally more time to read the hypertext than the linear text. We concluded that networked hypertexts are more challenging to read than linear texts and that students may benefit from explicit training on how to read hypertexts.     

Backoff hierarchical class n-gram language models: effectiveness to model unseen events in speech recognition

In this paper, we introduce the backoff hierarchical class n-gram language models to better estimate the likelihood of unseen n-gram events. This multi-level class hierarchy language modeling approach generalizes the well-known backoff n-gram language modeling technique. It uses a class hierarchy to define word contexts. Each node in the hierarchy is a class that contains all the words of its descendant nodes. The closer a node to the root, the more general the class (and context) is. We investigate the effectiveness of the approach to model unseen events in speech recognition. Our results illustrate that the proposed technique outperforms backoff n-gram language models. We also study the effect of the vocabulary size and the depth of the class hierarchy on the performance of the approach. Results are presented on Wall Street Journal (WSJ) corpus using two vocabulary set: 5000 words and 20,000 words. Experiments with 5000 word vocabulary, which contain a small numbers of unseen events in the test set, show up to 10% improvement of the unseen event perplexity when using the hierarchical class n-gram language models. With a vocabulary of 20,000 words, characterized by a larger number of unseen events, the perplexity of unseen events decreases by 26%, while the word error rate (WER) decreases by 12% when using the hierarchical approach. Our results suggest that the largest gains in performance are obtained when the test set contains a large number of unseen events.     

Promoting contextual vocabulary learning through an adaptive computer‐assisted EFL reading system

The study developed an adaptive computer‐assisted reading system and investigated its effect on promoting English as a foreign language learner‐readers' contextual vocabulary learning performance. Seventy Taiwanese college students were assigned to two reading groups. Participants in the customised reading group read online English texts, each of which was customised by the developed system to offer immediate and repeated meetings with previously encountered unknown words, while participants in the typical reading group read online texts without control on unknown word recurrence. After the 4‐week online reading treatment, the two groups of learners were tested by online immediate and delayed vocabulary tests, and the students from the customised reading group were also required to complete the questionnaire regarding system use. The results showed that the vocabulary mean scores from both immediate and delayed testing demonstrated significantly better results in word gain and word retention with the customised reading group and that the adaptive reading system was appealing for the students. The study demonstrated that by providing customised reading with word recurrence specific to individuals' unknown words, this adaptive computer‐assisted English as a foreign language reading system creates a more favourable condition for foreign language vocabulary growth.     

Reading electronic books as a support for vocabulary,story comprehension and word reading in kindergarten and first grade

The effect of reading an electronic storybook (e-book) on Israeli children’s language and literacy was examined in kindergarten children (N = 40; age 5:2–6:3) compared to first graders (N = 50; age 6:3–7:4). The children in each age group were randomly assigned to two groups: an intervention group which read the e-book five times and a control group which was afforded the regular school program. Pre- and post-tests included vocabulary and word reading measures. Post-tests included story comprehension and production. Children who read the e-book exhibited significant progress in word meaning and word reading compared to the control group. Kindergarten children progressed in word reading more significantly than first graders across treatment groups. This could be explained by the ceiling effect of the first graders’ word reading level which did not leave much room for progress in this skill compared to the kindergarten children. No interaction was found between age and treatment groups. Kindergarten children exhibited a good level of story comprehension, similar to first graders, although their story production was lower. Implications for future research and education are discussed.     

What comes with technological convenience? Exploring the behaviors and performances of learning with computer-mediated dictionaries

As technology develops, the prevalence of conventional book dictionaries has slowly declined due to advancements in computer-mediated aids, such as online type-in dictionaries and program-installed pop-up aids. The goal of this study was to examine how technology “may” have changed the long-standing pedagogical practice of book dictionary usage by identifying the learning processes associated with various dictionaries and verifying how these processes are related to learning. Cognitive load theory was applied to generate predictions about learning performance and, therefore, to determine the nature of these processes. Information contained in each dictionary was specifically controlled, and thus we focused on the effect of the learning process alone. In the experiment, students first read a simulated online text in one of four conditions: pop-up, type-in, book dictionaries or no aid. They were later tested for reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. Results indicated that all dictionaries enhanced vocabulary learning but not comprehension. Close examination revealed that vocabulary-learning efficiency was significantly higher for the pop-up dictionary than the other two aids. In addition, a complex relationship existed between reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. This study has important implications for future dictionary design and pedagogical advice regarding dictionary usage.     

面向高考阅读理解鉴赏题语言风格判别方法

语言风格是高考阅读理解中的重要考察内容,然而不同考察方式所需的分类层次不尽相同,该文将语言风格鉴赏转化为层次分类问题。在类别标签指导下,利用图分割算法,获取与特定类别相对应的原始簇。基于原始簇,利用层次聚类获取语言风格类别层次结构,之后结合层次结构训练SVM层次分类器。在解答语言风格鉴赏题过程中,依据阅读理解题干确定所需分类层次,利用SVM层次分类器完成对阅读材料语言风格判别,最后结合知识库生成语言风格鉴赏题答案。实验结果表明,基于层次结构的语言风格判别方法,可以为高考鉴赏类考题的解答提供技术支撑。     

Hypermedia annotation presentation: The effect of location and type on the EFL learners’ achievement in reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition

This study investigated the effect of gloss presentation in different text locations whilst participants read EFL texts in a hypermedia environment. Seventy-eight undergraduate EFL learners read and summarized seven texts and completed a vocabulary assessment. The number of propositions recalled in each summary was recorded. The data suggest that reading passages with hypermedia annotations significantly benefits passage comprehension and vocabulary (compared to reading passages with no annotations). The best performance was observed in the condition where glosses were placed after the glossed word. The study also reported large observed score mean differences for the definition gloss type of 3–5-words.     

A personalized recommendation-based mobile learning approach to improving the reading performance of EFL students

In this paper, a personalized recommendation-based mobile language learning approach is proposed. A mobile learning system has been developed based on the approach by providing a reading material recommendation mechanism for guiding EFL (English as Foreign Language) students to read articles that match their preferences and knowledge levels, and a reading annotation module that enables students to take notes of English vocabulary translations for the reading content in individual or shared annotation mode. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, an experiment was conducted on a senior high school English course by assigning three classes of students to two experimental groups and a control group. One experimental group learned with the recommendation system with the individual annotation function, the other experimental group learned with the recommendation system with the shared annotation function, while the students in the control group learned with the individual annotation function, but without the recommendation system. The experimental results show that both experimental groups outperformed the control group, but there was no difference in learning outcome between the two experimental groups in terms of learning achievements.     

English outside the academic sphere: A mobile-based context-aware comparison study on collaborative and individual learning

Context-aware ubiquitous learning (CAUL) technology provides language learners with interactive learning environments and has been found to increase learning effectiveness and self-efficacy due to student interaction, discussion and evaluation of the entire learning process. This study used a mobile-based ubiquitous learning system combined with a collaborative learning approach to develop Fitness-specific English listening and reading, and fitness knowledge. The researchers recruited two groups of participants, an individual learning group (N = 31) and a collaborative learning group (N = 30), and evaluated their learning performance via pre-and post-tests. In addition, a questionnaire explored the perceived usefulness, usability, follow-up intention of using the system and self-efficacy regarding fitness-specific English. The results show that both groups improved fitness-specific English in terms of listening and reading comprehension. Moreover, collaborative learning was found to facilitate fitness-specific knowledge, and those in the collaborative learning group improved their self-efficacy more than those in the individual learning group.     

Instructional effectiveness of a computer-supported program for teaching reading comprehension strategies

This article examines the effectiveness of a computer-based instructional program (e-PELS) aimed at direct instruction in a collection of reading comprehension strategies. In e-PELS, students learn to highlight and outline expository passages based on various types of text structures (such as comparison or cause-and-effect) as well as to paraphrase, self-question, and summarize. The study involved 1041 fourth-grade elementary students from 21 schools distributed in three regions in central Chile. Participant teachers integrated this program into the Spanish language curriculum, instructing their students during thirty sessions of 90 min each during one school semester. Pretest-to-posttest gains in reading comprehension scores were significantly greater for students instructed with this program than for students who received traditional instruction (d = .5), with particularly strong effects for lower-achieving students (d = .7). The findings support the efficacy of direct instruction in specific learning strategies in a computer-based environment.     

Lingual and non-lingual safety training methodology effectiveness: Does language of origin impact effectiveness

Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) trainings are used by global industries to mitigate risks and are often provided in a lingua franca (often English). This research investigated a strategy for overcoming language barriers associated with performance, comprehension, and training effectiveness. Non-linguistic (e.g., EU's Napo animated trainings) and English language (ENG) versions of EHS training were compared for effectiveness with native English language participants (L1), non-native English language participants (L2), and non-English language participants (L0).In the 1st study, 102 L1 & L2 U.S. employees completed one of the two trainings and were assessed on their reaction to and comprehension of the training. For this study, ENG was more effective and preferred by both language groups and this may be due to the workers' English proficiency and the number of channels of communication provided by the training medium. In the 2nd study, 78 L0 Brazilian and Chinese employees completed trainings and were assessed identically to the 1st study. For these participants, Napo training was more effective and preferred by both groups and this was likely because ENG L0 trainees had no channels for processing the information versus Napo's single channel of information. Interestingly, Brazilians in the ENG group outperformed their Chinese counterparts. Conversely, Chinese in the Napo group outperformed Brazilians in the Napo group.Though these findings are somewhat intuitive, they are extremely important for two reasons: 1) there is remarkable dearth of empirical research regarding the effects of the use of lingua franca for safety training. 2) Even though the idea of using lingua franca for training with L0 workers may seem obvious, there are a large number of international companies that use this for their EHS training. The findings from this study may provide a more effective and affordable method for some of these companies’ safety training needs.     

RoLo: A dictionary interface that minimizes extraneous cognitive load of lookup and supports incidental and incremental learning of vocabulary

Dictionary use can improve reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary learning. Nevertheless, great extraneous cognitive load imposed by the search process may reduce or even prevent the improvement. With the help of technology, dictionary users can now instantly access the meaning list of a searched word using a mouse click. However, they must spend great cognitive effort identifying the most appropriate meaning for a given context, contributing to the disruption of the flow of reading and decreasing the positive effect of dictionary use. Furthermore, dictionary users face difficulty in exploiting accumulative illustrations from multiple contexts to understand obscure words whose appropriate meanings are not in the dictionary or are difficult to identify. To address these issues and to offer language learners, especially lifelong learners, effective support for incremental and incidental learning of vocabulary through reading, this research proposes a dictionary interface named RoLo (Remind on Lookup). Each time an unfamiliar word is re-looked up, RoLo reminds users about contextual information and word knowledge learned in previous encounters of the word in an appropriate manner. Two studies were conducted to evaluate RoLo. The first study, with 34 participants, examined the effect of RoLo use on incidental vocabulary learning. The second examination, involving 43 participants who used the prototype of RoLo for one month, investigated dictionary users' evaluation of RoLo. The results show that RoLo helps dictionary users enhance vocabulary learning and text comprehension and search for unfamiliar words more easily and faster.     

Play games or study? Computer games in eBooks to learn English vocabulary

This study investigated how Chinese undergraduate college students studying English as a foreign language learned new vocabulary with inference-based computer games embedded in eBooks. The investigators specifically examined (a) the effectiveness of computer games (using inferencing) in eBooks, compared with hardcopy booklets for vocabulary retention, and (b) the relationship between students' performance on computer games and performance on a vocabulary test. A database recorded students' game playing behaviors in the log file. Students were pre- and post-tested on new vocabulary words with the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale. Participants learned significantly more vocabulary (p < .0005) in the computer game condition (web-based text and computer games) than in the control condition (their usual study method, hardcopy text, lists of words and multiple-choice questions). Students' scores in the games correlated significantly with their vocabulary post-test scores (r = .515, p < .01).