Fatigue behavior of the aeronautical Al–Li (2198) aluminum alloy under constant amplitude loading

Tensile and fatigue mechanical behavior of wrought aluminum alloy 2198-T351 is examined and compared against 2024-T3 that is currently used in aerostructures. Experimental fatigue tests were carried out under constant amplitude stress ratio R = 0.1 and respective stress–life (S–N) diagrams were constructed for both alloys. Fatigue behavior of both alloys is described with varying parameters being the percentage of fatigue life as well as the effect of maximum applied stress as a function of ultimate tensile strength. It was found that fatigue endurance limit of AA2024-T3 is approximately 40% below its yield stress, while only 9% below for the AA2198-T351. The latter was found to be superior in the high cycle fatigue and fatigue endurance limit regimes, especially when considering specific mechanical properties. Absorbed energies per fatigue cycle as well as dynamic stiffness of the fatigue hysteresis loop were calculated and plotted against the number of fatigue cycles and with varying maximum applied stress; both parameters are continuously decreasing due to the combination of hardening effect and micro-cracking in AA2024-T3, while this was the case only for the high applied stresses regime in AA2198-T351. Cyclic stress strain (CSS) curves were constructed and proved that work hardening exponent of AA2198-T351 is substantially decreasing with increasing fatigue life.     

Ermüdungsverhalten und Dauerfestigkeit von Graphit und Aluminium – infiltriertem Graphit

Fatigue behaviour and endurance limit of graphite and of aluminium‐infiltrated graphite Fatigue properties of polycrystalline, isotropic graphite FU2590 and of FU2590 infiltrated with AlSi7Mg (FU2590/AlSi7Mg) were investigated in reversed bending tests at 25 Hz at numbers of cycles below 10⁷ and in tension‐compression tests at 20 kHz below 10⁹ cycles. The open porosity of Graphite (10‐11 Vol.‐%) was infiltrated with the aluminium alloy using the squeeze casting infiltration method, which led to an increase of the bending strength by 50 %, increase of tensile strength by 30 % and increase of stiffness by 15 %. Fully reversed tension‐compression loading of FU2590 delivers a mean endurance limit at 10⁹ cycles at the normalized maximum stresses (i.e. maximum tension stress of a cycle divided by the static strength) of 0,65±0,03. Mean numbers of cycles to failure of 10⁴ were found in fully reversed bending tests at the normalized maximum stress of 0,78. The infiltrated material shows approximately 30 % higher cyclic strength in reversed bending tests, and the mean endurance limit under tension compression loading increases by 15 %. The increased endurance limit of the infiltrated material is caused by the increased stiffness. The increased toughness of graphite due to the infiltration with aluminium is of additional beneficial influence at the higher cyclic stresses investigated in reversed bending tests and in static tests.     

The influence of stress-controlled tensile fatigue loading on the stress–strain characteristics of AISI 1045 steel

This study analyses the influence of fatigue loading on the residual tensile properties of AISI 1045 steel. The fatigue tests were carried out under stress-controlled tensile loadings at a stress ratio equal to 0. The maximum applied stresses were within the range from 550 MPa to 790 MPa. An analysis of ratcheting strain and plastic strain amplitude evolution due to fatigue loading was performed on the experimental data. In the next stage of this study, the initial fatigue loadings were introduced. Two maximum stresses, 550 MPa and 750 MPa, and three cycle lengths, 25%, 50% and 75% of the total number of cycles required to fracture the material at a given stress, were used. The pre-fatigued specimens were subjected to tensile testing at strain rates from 10⁻⁴ to 10⁰ s⁻¹. A large number of fatigue cycles, equal to 75% of the fatigue life, induces material softening as well as a drop in elongation and a reduction of area. Pre-fatigue at maximum stress equal to 550 MPa results in the increase of the elastic limit and offset yield point as well. Both parameters reach almost constant value after number of cycles equal to 25 % of the fatigue life. The further increase in the number of cycles does not affect elastic limit and offset yield point in a clearly visible way. The increase of maximum stress of the initial fatigue loadings up to 750 MPa induces similar but stronger effect i.e. increase and stabilization of elastic limit and offset yield point values, however decrease of both parameters value is observed at large number of pre-fatigue cycles corresponding to 75% of the fatigue life.     

Fatigue damage of low amplitude cycles in low carbon steel

The influences of low load cycles on fatigue damage in 0.15% C steel (C15E, No. 1.1141) are investigated in the very high cycle fatigue regime using ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment. Constant amplitude (CA) endurance limits at limiting lifetime of 10⁹ cycles are determined in cyclic tension–compression and cyclic torsion tests. Non-propagating fatigue cracks are found in specimens subjected to cyclic torsion loading at the endurance limit. The endurance limit is considered as maximum stress amplitude where possibly initiated fatigue cracks do not propagate to failure. Two-step variable amplitude (VA) tension–compression endurance tests are performed with repeat sequences consisting of high stress amplitudes above the endurance limit and far greater number of cycles below. The measured lifetimes are compared with linear damage accumulation calculations (Miner calculations). If the high stress amplitude is more than approximately 13% above the CA endurance limit, detrimental influences of low load cycles and failures at low damage sums are found. If the high stress is less than 13% above the CA endurance limit, numerous low load cycles cause prolonged fatigue lifetimes and specimens can sustain large damage sums without failure. Two-step VA fatigue crack growth investigations show that load cycles below the threshold stress intensity accelerate crack growth, if the high stress intensity is 18% or more above the CA threshold stress intensity. In repeat sequences with high stress intensities 14% above threshold stress intensity, low load cycles decelerated and stopped fatigue crack growth. Low load cycles can reduce or prolong fatigue lifetimes of low carbon steel and one reason is the accelerated or retarded fatigue crack growth due to numerous low amplitudes, and the maximum load amplitude of a VA load sequence determines whether detrimental or beneficial effects prevail.     

Tensile fatigue behaviour of tightly woven carbon/carbon composites

The tensile fatigue behaviour of a tightly woven carbon/carbon composite was investigated as a function of stress level. Load-controlled fatigue tests were performed in tension-tension mode with a stress ratio, R, of 0.1 under ambient laboratory conditions. Results of composite behaviour are discussed in terms of the relationship of the stress/strain behaviour to the fatigue life of these composites as well as the effects of applied stress levels. It is shown that these composites exhibit good resistance to cyclic loading. No fatigue failures were obtained after 10⁶ cycles when the maximum tensile load in the fatigue cycle is less than or equal to 80% of the static tensile strength. Evidence of textural changes related to fatigue was observed in the matrix region of these composites.     

Non-propagating crack behaviour at giga-cycle fretting fatigue limit

Fretting fatigue fracture of industrial machines is sometimes experienced after a long period of operation. It has been a question whether the fatigue limit which means infinite life really exists in fretting fatigue or not. Fretting fatigue tests in ultra high cycle region up to 10⁹ cycles were performed. Test results showed that the S‐N curve had a knee point around 2 × 10⁷ cycles and a clear fatigue limit was observed in the giga‐cycle regime for partial slip conditions. An electropotential drop technique was applied to detect the crack growth behaviour under the contact pad. The real‐time measurement of crack depth during the fretting fatigue test at the fatigue limit showed that a crack initiated at an early stage and then ceased to grow after 2 × 10⁷ cycles and the crack became a non‐propagating crack. These results indicated that the fatigue limit exists in fretting fatigue and infinite endurance is achieved by the mechanism of forming a non‐propagating crack.     

Off-axis tensile fatigue assessment based on residual strength for the unidirectional 45° carbon fiber-reinforced composite at room temperature

The tensile fatigue behavior of unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting laminates was examined at room temperature. Tension-tension cyclic fatigue tests were conducted under load control at a sinusoidal frequency of 10 Hz to obtain stress-fracture cycles (S-N) relationship. The fatigue limits of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic laminates (CF/PA6) and thermosetting laminates (CF/Epoxy) were found to be 28.0 MPa (48% of the tensile strength) and 56.2 MPa (63% of the tensile strength), respectively. Two types (in constant and incremental loading way) of loading-unloading low cycle fatigue tests were employed to investigate the modulus history of fatigue process for announcing the fatigue mechanism. The residual tensile strength of specimens that survived fatigue loading maintained with the increase of fatigue cycles and applied stress. Examination of the fatigue-loaded specimens revealed that the more flexible/ductile trend of resins and the formation of micro-cracks at the interface between fiber and matrix was facilitated during high fatigue loading (⩾fatigue limit stress), while no interfacial/matrix damage in resins was detected during low fatigue loading (<fatigue limit stress), which was consider to be the governing mechanism of strength maintain during fatigue loading.     

Untersuchungen zur Festigkeit von Schrauben aus ultrafeinkörnigem und konventionellem Aluminiumwerkstoff EN AW‐7075

Investigation into strength of bolts made of ultra fine grain as well as coarse grain aluminium material AA7075 Results of investigation into strength and fracture behaviour with high level mean load of rolled 7075‐aluminiumbolts M6 are given. Bolts made of coarse grain as well as ultra fine grain structure produced by Equal Channel Angular Extrusion (ECAE) were tested. The ultimate tensile strength for both grain sizes was of a similar level. As a result of the first fatigue tests it seems that the fatigue strength of the ultra fine grain material is lower that the fatigue strength of the coarse grain material. An endurance limit of 23 MPa was found for the bolts made of coarse grain material using a modified staircase method. Furthermore, fracture behaviour of aluminium bolts is discussed.     

Fatigue and post-fatigue behaviour of carbon/epoxy non-crimp fabric composites

This paper focuses on the static, fatigue and post-fatigue tensile properties of a biaxial carbon/epoxy non-crimp fabric composite. In a series of quasi-static tensile tests, the stress–strain level where damage initiates was determined. This stress level was then used as the maximum stress level in tensile–tensile fatigue tests in the fibre direction. It was found that in fibre direction, this load level can be considered safe for fatigue up to very high cycle numbers. The damage evolution during the tests was monitored at certain cycle times with X-ray radiography. The post-fatigue residual static tensile properties were determined after different numbers of cycles. A series of tensile–tensile fatigue tests at various higher stress levels allowed for the fatigue life curves to be constructed in each of the four testing directions. This revealed that the damage initiation load level is well below the practical fatigue limit of the material.     

Further trials of a strain hardening index of fatigue damage

Previous cyclic-strain, smooth-specimen fatigue tests of α–β titanium alloys displayed an anomolous endurance enhancement for some of the alloy conditions. This could be explained by associating resistance to fatigue damage directly with the stress-normalized plastic strain hardening rate at the point of maximum cyclic tensile stress. Since this rate also controls the extent of stress-relaxation-induced tensile creep strain in each cycle, it was thought that fatigue damage might be associated with it. To test this hypothesis, data with varied load hold time, and over a full range of cyclic life, is reported here for some of the previously reported alloys of Ti-6A1-4V, as well as for an A36 steel plate. Notch fatigue tests of the A36, combined with those of Yoder et al. for the titanium alloys, are compared to the smooth specimen data. Results tend to support the damage-inhibiting role of the plastic strain hardening rate, but not of the creep strain portion of each cycle. Notch fatigue data agrees with smooth specimen trends if Neuber's rule is used to characterize the stress concentration factor, particularly with the A36 steel. As with Yoder's notch fatigue results, smooth specimen LCF life, though quite different in the range less than 10³ cycles, tends to converge near the endurance limit, thus mitigating adverse effects of alloy conditions which favor resistance to fatigue crack propagation in α-β titanium alloys.     

High-temperature fatigue behaviour of a second generation near-γ titanium aluminide sheet material under isothermal and thermomechanical conditions

The high-temperature deformation behaviour of a second generation γ-TiAl sheet material with near-γ microstructure was characterised under tensile, creep, isothermal and thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) loading conditions. Test temperature ranged from 500 to 750 °C in isothermal tests and these temperatures were also used as minimum and maximum temperature of in-phase (IP) and out-of-phase (OP) thermomechanical fatigue tests. Under tensile loading, a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) of about 650 °C was observed. At this temperature the material experiences a temperature dependent change in the fracture morphology. Creep tests carried out in the temperature range from 650 to 800 °C under true constant stress conditions revealed a temperature and stress dependence of the Norton stress exponent n and the apparent activation energy for creep Q_app. With increasing temperature, isothermal fatigue life at constant strain amplitude decreased in vacuum, but increased in air indicating an abnormal (inverse) environmental effect. Under IP loading, fatigue is characterised by cyclic softening due to dynamic recrystallisation. OP loading drastically reduces fatigue life and turned out to be an extremely critical loading situation for γ-TiAl alloys.     

Fatigue properties and fracture analysis of a SiC fiber-reinforced titanium matrix composite

Tension–tension fatigue properties of SiC fiber reinforced Ti–6Al–4V matrix composite (SiC_f/Ti–6Al–4V) at room temperature were investigated. Fatigue tests were conducted under a load-controlled mode with a stress ratio 0.1 and a frequency 10 Hz under a maximum applied stress ranging from 600 to 1200 MPa. The relationship between the applied stress and fatigue life was determined and fracture surfaces were examined to study the fatigue damage and fracture failure mechanisms using SEM. The results show that, the fatigue life of the SiC_f/Ti–6Al–4V composite decreases substantially in proportion to the increase in maximum applied stress. Moreover, in the medium and high life range, the relationship between the maximum applied stress and cycles to failure in the semi-logarithmic system could be fitted as a linear equation: S_max/μ = 1.381 − 0.152 × lgN_f. Fractographic analysis revealed that fatigue fracture surfaces consist of a fatigued region and a fast fracture region. The fraction of the fatigued region with respect to the total fracture surface decreases with the increase of the applied maximum stresses.     

Monotonic and fatigue behaviour of chopped-strand-mat/polyester composites with rigid and flexibilised matrix

Monotonic and tension–tension fatigue tests were carried out on E-glass chopped-strand-mat/polyester composites, varying the flexibiliser content by weight in the matrix in the range 0–30%. The flexibilising action was due to the adipic acid monomers present in the flexibiliser.In monotonic tests, the most marked effect of resin flexibility was in the transverse cracks formed during loading, whose critical density (i.e., the density at failure) was very high for the rigid matrix, resulting in a highly non-linear stress–strain curve, and in the largest apparent strain to failure. With suitably increasing the flexibiliser content, the transverse crack formation was nearly suppressed, and the overall stress–strain curve approached linearity.In fatigue, the critical crack density decreased with increasing fatigue life in the case of the rigid matrix. For the flexibilised resins, the crack density at failure was independent of the maximum applied stress, larger than observed in monotonic tests, and higher the higher was the flexibiliser content, up to about 80% of the tensile strength. Beyond this limit, it converged through the material monotonic behaviour. The evolution of the residual elastic modulus with elapsing fatigue cycles was qualitatively consistent with the number of transverse cracks observed. The more flexible the matrix, the lower was the fractional modulus loss in fatigue. However, the highest elastic modulus along all the fatigue life pertained to the composite with rigid matrix, due to the flexibiliser adversely affecting the initial rigidity.Despite the differences in monotonic response and crack formation features, all the materials tested exhibited very similar S–N curves at moderately high fatigue lives. Nevertheless, appropriately treating the experimental results in terms of fatigue sensitivity, it was found that this parameter tends to increase with increasing matrix flexibility.     

Low and high‐cycle fatigue properties of an ultrahigh‐strength TRIP bainitic steel

The scope of this study is to characterize the mechanical properties of a novel Transformation‐Induced Plasticity bainitic steel grade TBC700Y980T. For this purpose, tensile tests are carried out with loading direction 0, 45 and 90° with respect to the L rolling direction. Yield stress is found to be higher than 700 MPa, ultimate tensile strength larger than 1050 MPa and total elongation higher than 15%. Low‐cycle fatigue (LCF) tests are carried out under fully reverse axial strain exploring fatigue lives comprised between 10² and 10⁵ fatigue cycles. The data are used to determine the parameters of the Coffin–Manson as well as the cyclic stress–strain curve. No significant stress‐induced austenite transformation is detected. The high‐cycle fatigue (HCF) behaviour is investigated through load controlled axial tests exploring fatigue tests up to 5 × 10⁶ fatigue cycles at two loading ratios, namely R = ?1 and R = 0. At fatigue lives longer than 2 × 10⁵ cycles, the strain life curve determined from LCF tests tends to greatly underestimate the HCF resistance of the material. Apparently, the HCF behaviour of this material cannot be extrapolated from LCF tests, as different damage, cyclic hardening mechanisms and microstructural conditions are involved. In particular, in the HCF regime, the predominant damage mechanism is nucleation of fatigue cracks in the vicinity of oxide inclusions, whereby mean value and scatter in fatigue limit are directly correlated to the dimension of these inclusions.     

Application of a self-compacting ultra-high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete to retrofit RC beams subjected to repeated loading

The aim of this paper is to describe the performance of reinforced concrete (RC) beams retrofitted with a self-compacting ultra-high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) under three-point bend cyclic loading. It is found that retrofitting the RC beams with a thin UHPFRC strip on the tension face increases their endurance limit under a non-zero mean stress cyclic loading from approximately 40% to approximately 60% of their static three-point flexural strength. Moreover, the retrofitted beams behave as a composite structure, with no delamination of the retrofit strip being observed in any of the fatigue tests.     

Prediction of low-cycle fatigue behaviour of GFRP: an experimental approach

Fatigue tests conducted on “Scotchply-1000” under constant stress range ΔS or constant strain range Δ∈ gave essentially the same life when the stress range was normalized by the ultimate strength (ΔS/σ _u) and the strain range was normalized by the fracture strain (Δ∈/∈ _f). Fatigue cycling of either type produces a progressive decrease in the modulus of elasticity which is a linear function of log N. An empirical relation of the type used to predict the low-cycle fatigue of metals was selected to predict the low-cycle fatigue behaviour of GFRP materials. Agreement between the experimental results and the predictions of the empirical relation was found to be good. A general method of evaluating the constants from a limited number of fatigue tests has been suggested. Further generalization of the constants and their correlation with the tensile properties of the material may be possible with the availability of more data on the fatigue of composite materials.     

Accelerated fatigue testing method

A method for accelerated fatigue testing of materials, based on a cumulative damage rule, is developed and examined. The method is based on monotonically increasing the stress amplitude with the number of cycles, until failure. When the initial stress amplitude is above the endurance limit, two tests are needed to determine the S/N curve; another test, with an initial stress amplitude below the endurance limit, is needed to determine the fatigue endurance limit. It is shown how to choose the right loading rate and starting level. This method minimizes the number of tests needed for the determination of the fatigue strength endurance limit, and also shortens these tests by reducing the number of cycles, (as each test ends with specimen failure).     

Effect of submillimeter size holes on the fatigue limit of a high strength tool steel

The very high cycle fatigue and small fatigue crack growth behaviour of a generic tool steel material for diesel fuel injector application are described. The small crack growth tests for the tool steel material with and without the hardening heat treatment revealed the mechanisms of crack propagation and threshold behaviour. Based on the small fatigue crack propagation threshold value, an elastic plastic fracture mechanics methodology for the prediction of the endurance limit of specimens with submillimeter holes is proposed. The advantages of the new methodology are discussed in relation to existing methodologies for endurance limit prediction of specimens with small holes.     

Fretting fatigue in engineering alloys

The experimental procedures which have been used to carry out fretting fatigue tests are reviewed and the preferred specimen and contact pad geometries and method of testing are identified. The S–N curves generated with and without fretting and subsequent analysis have been used to satisfy a number of objectives: (1) to establish the important variables which can significantly affect fretting fatigue behaviour; (2) to increase our fundamental understanding of the fretting fatigue process; and (3) to give a ranking of a diverse range of materials in terms of their resistance to fretting fatigue. The analytical methods which have been used to predict fretting fatigue crack initiation are briefly discussed. With some specimen/fretting pad material combinations, small fretting fatigue cracks are introduced at a very early stage in life and fracture mechanics methods are developed in order to model their growth. Analytical procedures for fretting fatigue based on either S–N endurance or fracture mechanics methodologies are discussed.     

Investigation of high cycle and Very-High-Cycle Fatigue behaviors for a structural steel with smooth and notched specimens

The high cycle and Very-High-Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) properties of a structural steel with smooth and notched specimens were studied by employing a rotary bending machine with frequency of 52.5 Hz. For smooth specimens, VHCF failure did occur at fatigue cycles of 7.1 × 10⁸ with the related S–N curve of stepwise tendency. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used for the observations of the fracture surfaces. It shows that for smooth specimens the crack origination is surface mode in the failure regime of less than 10⁷ cycles. While at VHCF regime, the material failed from the nonmetallic inclusion lies in the interior of material, leading to the formation of fisheye pattern. The dimensions of crack initiation region were measured and discussed with respect to the number of cycles to failure. The mechanism analysis by means of low temperature fracture technique shows that the nonmetallic inclusion in the interior of specimen tends to debond from surrounding matrix and form a crack. The crack propagates and results to the final failure. The stress intensity factor and fatigue strength were calculated to investigate the crack initiation properties. VHCF study on the notched specimens shows that the obtained S–N curve decreases continuously. SEM analysis reveals that multiple crack origins are dominant on specimen surface and that fatigue crack tends to initiate from the surface of the specimen. Based on the fatigue tests and observations, a model of crack initiation was used to describe the transition of fatigue initiation site from subsurface to surface for smooth and notched specimens. The model reveals the influences of load, grain size, inclusion size and surface notch on the crack initiation transition.