THE EFFECT OF SLICE THICKNESS AND MIXING TIME ON THE PALATABILITY AND COOKING CHARACTERISTICS OF RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS

Restructured beef steaks were made from chuck meat that was flaked (6 mm) or sliced at various thicknesses (2.5, 5.0 or 7.5 mm). Each formulation was mixed for 5, 10, 15 or 20 min, pressed into logs, frozen and cut into steaks. Steaks were evaluated for fat and moisture contents, cooking characteristics, and sensory attributes. Slice thickness had little effect on sensory properties; however, the restructured steaks were significantly more tender and possessed a more desirable texture and flavor than the intact chuck steaks. Restructured steaks made from meat that was mixed for 5 or 10 min were significantly more tender and received higher texture desirability and overall palatability ratings than restructured steaks made from meat that was mixed for 15 or 20 min.     

Effects of Mechanically Separated Beef with Various Chloride Salts in Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of various chloride salts (NaCl, MgCl₂, KCl or 65% NaCl + 35% KCl) in combination with mechanically separated beef (MSB at 0, 10 or 20%) on the quality of restructured steaks formulated from bullock chucks were determined. As level of MSB increased, objectionable connective tissue, flavor desirability and overall palatability decreased and off-flavors increased. The development of oxidative rancidity during frozen storage was not affected by MSB level and MSB had little effect on textural traits. NaCl and NaCl + KCl treated steaks received superior flavor and overall palatability ratings over steaks containing MgCl₂ or KCl. Oxidative rancidity developed faster in steaks containing NaCl than the other salt types. Partial replacement (35%) of NaCl with KCl resulted in restructured steaks with sensory properties equal to and storage life superior to steaks with NaCl alone.     

INSTITUTIONAL COOKERY OF RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS

Restructured beef steaks were cooked under four institutional cooking methodologies: oven roasting, grill frying, deep fat frying and broiling. The samples were evaluated for fat and moisture contents, cooking loss and texture. Sensory panels evaluated the steaks for texture desirability, flavor desirability, appearance and overall palat-ability. Evaluations were repeated using breaded, restructured beef steaks cooked by the four institutional methods, with grilled unbreaded steaks included for comparison. Deep fat fried, breaded and unbreaded steaks were significantly lower in moisture and higher in fat than those cooked by any other methodology. No significant differences in juiciness, flavor desirability or overall palatability were found between the unbreaded broiled, oven roasted or grilled samples. Broiled and grilled steaks were preferred for texture in the unbreaded and breaded samples. The unbreaded, deep fat fried samples received the lowest scores for all sensory attributes. Breading significantly improved the juiciness, texture and overall palatability of the deep fat fried steaks. For both breaded and unbreaded samples, grill frying was the preferred method of preparation.     

Effect of Chloride Salts and Antioxidants on Sensory and Storage Traits of Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of antioxidants (0.01 or 0.02% of total fat), salt level (0.375 or 0.750%) and salt type (NaCl, KCl or a 65% NaCl + 35% KCl combination) in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial arrangement on the quality of restructured beef steaks were determined. Meat blends with 0.02% antioxidant had lower thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values than those with 0.01% after 85 to 155 days of frozen storage. Steaks with no salt (pooled across antioxidant levels) had lower TBA values than steaks with any salt type after 85 days storage or either level of salt after 155 days storage. Steaks with either level of added salt resulted in higher ratings for juiciness, saltiness and overall palatability than steaks with no added salt. Juiciness, flavor desirability, saltiness and overall palatability ratings generally were higher for restructured steaks made with NaCl or NaCl + KCl compared to those made with KCl. KCl at 35% of total salt could serve as a NaCl substitute in restructured beef steaks.     

LOW-FAT, NO ADDED SALT IN RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS WITH VARIOUS BINDERS

This research investigated technology for the development of a low-fat restructured beef steak devoid of added salt with texture similar to intact muscle. Low-fat (10%), low-sodium restructured beef steaks made from closely trimmed, flaked beef round muscles and tumbled with or without a binding agent were compared to boneless top loin steaks (5–6% fat). Boneless top loin steaks had greater (P < .05) shear resistance, cohesiveness, juiciness, overall desirability, percentage moisture (raw) and percentage protein (cooked) than restructured steaks. Steaks made with 3.0% modified potato starch had slightly more juiciness and moisture content (cooked) and lower expressible fluid content than all other restructured samples. Product made with 1.0% microcrystalline cellulose had lower (P < .05) juiciness scores than top loin steaks and restructured steaks made with no additives or modified potato starch. Use of 0.25% kappa-carrageenan or 1.5% surimi increased (P < .05) sensory scores for off-flavor. Steaks made with 1.5% surimi also had lower (P < .05) sensory scores for overall desirability.     

Effects of Hot-Boning and Particle Thickness on Restructured Beef Steaks

Restructured steaks were made using hot-boned or aged beef made from sliced particles (2.5 mm or 5.0 mm thick). Beef slices were formed to make restructured steaks. The steaks were evaluated for cooking characteristics, textural properties and sensory attributes. Restructured steaks made from hot-boned beef were generally considered less tender and received lower texture desirability, flavor desirability and overall palatability ratings as compared to steaks made from aged beef. Restructured steaks made from larger meat slices (5.0 mm) were less tender and received lower texture desirability ratings than restructured steaks made with thinner slices (2.5 mm).     

Effect of long frozen storage on the formation of triglyceride alteration compounds of pan-fried functional restructured beef steaks

The influences of pan-frying in extra virgin olive oil (EVO) and frozen storage of functional restructured beef steaks on the contents of polar material (PM) and thermal oxidation compound of the fat extracted from them were determined. Two types of functional restructured meats: 20% walnut-added (W, 13% fat) and low fat (L, 2% fat) were studied in comparison to conventional medium fat (M, 13% fat) restructured beef steaks. Differences in the PM or the thermal oxidation and hydrolytic compounds were mainly due to meat formulation with fried L samples showing the highest PM and polymer concentrations and fried W steaks the lowest. After one year of frozen storage the PM content increased in all samples but markedly in L and W steaks. Polymers decreased in L and increased in W and M steaks. Thermal oxidation compounds increased in W and M steaks while hydrolysis increased markedly in L samples. Long-term storage of all fried steaks is not recommended, whether functional of not since lipid degradation occurs. Although these alterations after one year-frozen storage are still far from their discarding limit, the consumption of just cooked functional steaks is highly recommended.     

Composition and physicochemical characteristics of restructured beef steaks containing walnuts as affected by cooking method

The study was conducted to determine the influence of various cooking methods - conventional oven, microwave oven, electric grill and pan-frying on the composition and physicochemical characteristics of restructured beef steaks formulated as low fat (L, 2.0% fat), medium fat (M, 13.0% fat) and 20% added walnut (W, 12.6% fat). Composition, retention coefficients for different compounds, cooking loss (CL) and texture were affected by both formulation and cooking. There was considerable retention of moisture, fat and minerals (as ash) in W samples after cooking. CL was highest (P<0.05) in M sample and lowest (P<0.05) in W samples. Microwaved restructured steaks had higher (P<0.05) kramer shear force (KSF) and bind strength (BS), while pan-fried and conventionally oven-cooked steaks had lower (P<0.05) KSF. The thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) content was low in all restructured steaks but was affected by both cooking and formulation. Although cooking can change the proximal composition of steaks, lipid retention (>90%) was greatest in the case of the W sample, thus assuring that the ultimate objective of these restructured meats, namely to provide a source of walnut and walnut fat, would be successful.     

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT AGING PROCEDURES ON THE PALATABILITY OF BEEF

Ten pairs of beef strip loins were obtained 48 h postmortem from ten good grade beef carcasses. Three steaks (2.5 cm thick) were cut from the loin end of each strip loin and the remaining portion retained as the subprimal. Steaks and subprimals were aged for 7 days at 2°C in the following treatments: polyvinyl chloride overwrapped steaks (PVC-ST), vacuum packaged steaks (VP-ST), vacuum packaged subprimals (VP-SP), and subprimals held in air (Air-SP). After aging of the subprimal, 3 additional steaks were cut for evaluation. The steaks from all treatments were evaluated for palatability and chemical characteristics. Palatability characteristics did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments with the exception of the off-flavor intensity of PVC-ST which was higher (P < 0.05) than other treatments. Warner-Bratzler shear values were similar for all treatments. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed between treatments for percent moisture, percent lipid, pH or TBA number. The results of this study indicate that aging method (air or vacuum) or type of cut (steaks or subprimals) had little effect on the palatability attributes or chemical characteristics of the beef strip loins.     

The effect of cooking on the chemical composition of meat products with special reference to fat loss

The chemical composition and energy content of four product categories (sausages, restructured steaks, burgers and minced beef) were determined before and after cooking. Two cooking methods were used for each product category: sausages and burgers were fried or grilled, restructured steaks were grilled or cooked in an oven whilst mince was either boiled or lightly fried and then boiled to simulate domestic practice. Based on an initial 100 g of product and excluding the low fat products included in the survey, the average weights after cooking were 78, 73, 72 and 70 g for the sausages, restructured steaks, burgers and minced beef, respectively; average fat contents before and after cooking were 22 and 17 g for the sausages, 17 and 14 g for the restructured steaks, 25 and 16 g for the beef burgers, and 19 and 7 g for the mince; and average energy contents before and after cooking were 1215 and 1016 kJ for the sausages, 958 and 815 kJ for the restructured steaks, 1244 and 906 kJ for the burgers and 1009 and 544 kJ for the mince. For a given product type, cooking method was relatively unimportant; the cooking loss, fat loss and energy content of the cooked product being more dependent on product formulation and manufacturing process. The survey included a low fat sausage, a low fat burger, a lean mince and an extra lean mince with fat contents of 8.7, 7.5, 12.4 and 5.2%, respectively. Overall weight losses during cooking were similar to standard products, though low fat products lost proportionally more water and less fat. Frying resulted in a slight gain in fat content for the low fat sausages and burgers, based on an initial 100 g of product, though fried low fat products still had lower fat and energy contents than standard products. It is argued that national consumption figures should take into account the losses that occur during cooking to avoid overestimating fat and energy intake levels.     

USDA QUALITY GRADES AND PALATABILITY OF LOIN STEAKS FROM CALF AND YOUNG BEEF CARCASSES 1

The net effect of increases in one palatability attribute (flavor) and decreases in other palatability attributes (amount of connective tissue; tenderness) as carcass maturity increased from “Calf” to “Beef” was that the composite measures of eating satisfaction (overall palatability ratings) were identical (4.8 and 4.8) for loin steaks from carcasses of the two age classes. Increases in maturity across the range from Ca⁰⁰ to A³³ had no effect (P > 0.05) on palatability of loin steaks; attempts to classify “Calf” vs. “Beef” or to assign relative maturity scores within the Calf class were not successful in identifying differences in palatability of loin steaks. Relative fatness (feathering; flank streaking; marbling; estimated or actual intramuscular fat content; subcutaneous fat thickness) was useful in accounting for the observed variability in palatability of meat from Calf and/or Beef carcasses and should be the basis for quality grade assessments. In no case did consideration of conformation or any relative maturity indicator improve significantly upon ability of relative fatness to explain variation in ratings for flavor, tenderness or overall palatability for loin steaks from either Calf or Beef carcasses. These data suggest that classification of certain bovine carcasses as “Calf” rather than “Beef” could be done more objectively than at present (perhaps for example, by using carcass weight) and that consideration of relative maturity should be eliminated in determining the USDA quality grades of Calf carcasses.     

Changes in fatty acids and polar material of restructured low-fat or walnut-added steaks pan-fried in olive oil

The study aims to determine the influence of pan-frying on the fatty acid composition and fat content and alteration of functional restructured beef steaks. Low-fat (L, 2% fat), 20% walnut-added (W, 13% fat) and medium fat (M, 13% fat) steaks were prepared and fried in extra virgin olive oil. Pan-frying increased fat in L and W steaks and decreased it in M ones. Raw L and M steaks showed similar fatty acid profiles while W ones contained a lower percentage of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) but a higher percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The fatty acid profile of fried steaks was between that of the raw steaks and olive oil. Several fatty acids (g fatty acid/100 g edible steaks) were affected (p < 0.001) by the frying × meat-formulation interaction. Linoleic and linolenic acid contents did not decrease in fried W steaks, but decreased (p < 0.05) when data were expressed on a dry matter basis.Frying increased SFA, MUFA and ω-6 PUFA contents in L samples while it decreased SFA and increased ω-6 PUFA in M steaks. Before and after frying, W steaks had atherogenic and thrombogenic indexes at least three times lower than their counterparts. Both indexes decreased in fried L samples while only the AI in M ones. Polar material content (PM) increased only in L samples. No relevant differences were found between PM of the fried steaks and that of their corresponding used oils. Results suggest that pan-frying improves the fatty acid composition of L and M steaks with minor changes in PM. The high retention of lipids observed in the W samples permits consumption of ω-3 PUFA- and ω-6 PUFA-enriched meat with a very low content of alteration compounds.     

Consumer Assessment of Beef Tenderloin Steaks from Various USDA Quality Grades at 3 Degrees of Doneness

A consumer study was conducted to determine palatability ratings of beef tenderloin steaks from USDA Choice, USDA Select, and USDA Select with marbling scores from Slight 50 to 100 (USDA High Select) cooked to various degrees of doneness. Steaks were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 degree of doneness categories: very‐rare, medium‐rare, or well‐done. Consumers (N = 315) were screened for preference of degree of doneness and fed 4 samples of their preferred doneness (a warm‐up and one from each USDA quality grade treatment in a random order). Consumers evaluated steaks on an 8‐point verbally anchored hedonic scale for tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and overall like as well as rated steaks as acceptable or unacceptable for all palatability traits. Quality grade had no effect (P > 0.05) on consumer ratings for tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and overall like scores, with all traits averaging above a 7 (“like very much”) on the 8‐point scale. In addition, no differences (P > 0.05) were found in the percentage of samples rated as acceptable for all palatability traits, with more than 94% of samples rated acceptable for each trait in all quality grades evaluated. Steaks cooked to well‐done had lower (P < 0.05) juiciness scores than steaks cooked to very‐rare or medium‐rare and were rated lower for tenderness (P < 0.05) than steaks cooked to a very‐rare degree of doneness. Results indicate consumers were not able to detect differences in tenderness, juiciness, flavor, or overall like among beef tenderloin steaks from USDA Choice and Select quality grades.     

In vitro digestion of protein-enriched restructured beef steaks with pea protein isolate,rice protein and lentil flour following sous vide processing

The effect of plant protein inclusion in cooked meat upon in vitro gastro-intestinal (GI) digestion was investigated. Pea protein isolate, rice protein and lentil flour were used to increase the protein content in a meat model system restructured using two transglutaminase enzymes [Activa®EB (TG) and Transgluseen™-M (TS)]. Restructured beef steaks were subjected to simulated GI digestion using the static INFOGEST method. Samples taken at different digestion times were analysed using SDS-PAGE, size exclusion-HPLC, free amino acid analysis and microscopy. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed significant protein hydrolysis during GI digestion. Most soluble peptides had a molecular weight smaller than 500 Da, corresponding to peptides of <5 amino acids, regardless of food treatment. The amounts of released, free amino acids isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine and valine were higher (P < 0.05) in lentil-enriched restructured beef steaks following GI digestion. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CSLM) revealed pronounced aggregation in digested samples. In vitro digestates of protein-enriched restructured beef steaks showed lower production of small molecular weight peptides. This study demonstrated how the bioaccessibility of protein-enriched restructured beef steaks are influenced by formulation and processing.     

Extending Beef Bullock Restructured Steaks with Soy Protein, Wheat Gluten or Mechanically Separated Beef

Nine blends were formulated from young bullocks to contain 0, 10 or 20% mechanically separated beef (MSB), textured soy protein (TSP) or vital wheat gluten (VWG), (Control = no extender). All blends were analyzed for chemical, sensory and visual properties. Control and extended, restructured steaks were not different in juiciness, tenderness or cohesiveness scores or for calcium content. Blends extended with TSP or VWG had a high incidence of off-flavor and all extended, restructured steaks had less desirable visual properties than control blends. Storage life was not affected by type or level of extender. Restructured steaks extended with MSB were not equal to the control, but were superior to TSP or VWG extended steaks.     

Frozen storage stability of antioxidant-treated raw restructured beef steaks made from mature cows

Previous research has shown that beef quality decreased with the age of cattle. In this study, beef trimmings from nine mature cows (n = 9), equally representing three animal age groups (2–4, 6–8, and 10–12 yr), were restructured into steaks formulated with propyl gallate, alone or in combination with a beefy flavoring agent, to enhance palatability and stability during 6 months of frozen storage at −29 °C. Lipid oxidation, rancidity, and loss of beefy flavor in restructured steaks during extended storage were reduced by propyl gallate. The beefy flavoring agent inclusion masked mature, forage-fed beef off-flavors, intensified beefy flavor, and improved steak tenderness, juiciness and cooking yield. Thus, the combination of propyl gallate and beefy flavoring offers an effective means to enhance the palatability and storage stability of restructured beef prepared from mature cows.     

EFFECTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY OF BEEF AND MARBLING OF RIB STEAKS ON EATING QUALITY

SUMMARY— Selected characteristics of beef rib steaks representing three physiological maturity levels and two marbling levels were investigated. Paired steaks at the 1lth thoracic vertebra were used to obtain cooking time and losses, palatability scores, Warner-Bratzter shear values, and selected histological data. In addition, steaks from the left 7th and right 8th thoracic vertebrae positions were used to measure cooking time and losses, Warner-Bratzfer shear values, waterholding capacity, pH, color-difference, and total moisture. Ether extract was obtained for raw longissimus dorsi at the 12th thoracic vertebra. Maturity and marbling affected told moisture (P < 0.001), quantity of fat in raw muscle (histological measurement, P < 0.01). ether extract (P < 0.001). and dripping losses (7th and 8th thoracic vertebrae P < 0.001). Other factors were not affected significantly. Maturity and marbling, at levels represented, had little effect on palatability of the steaks, although generally, measurements for fat content were higher and those for moisture lower at the higher marbling level. Most correlation coefficients for overall acceptability and histological measurements were low. Tenderness had more influence on the overall acceptability of the meat than flavor or juiciness. Moderate to high relationships occurred between cooking time and both initial weight of steaks and cooking losses. Generally, waterholding capacity was not related to pH, total moisture, or cooking losses. Correlation coefficients for pH vs. shear value and pH vs. color-difference were low.     

The influence of forage diets and aging on beef palatability

To investigate the influence of diet and aging on beef palatability, lipid oxidative stability, and fatty acid composition, crossbred steers were assigned to Feedlot S (alfalfa and grain), Forage TR (triticale and annual ryegrass), Forage TK (triticale and kale), or Forage + Feedlot (grazing ryegrass, fescue and orchardgrass, finished on alfalfa and grain) dietary treatments. Heifers were finished on Feedlot H (alfalfa and grain). Longissimus and tricep muscles were sampled from these animals for steaks and ground beef, respectively. Steaks were either dry- or wet-aged for 14 d. Ground beef was dry-aged, wet-aged for 14 d, or not aged. Trained sensory panelists evaluated palatability attributes of steaks and ground beef. Diet did not influence sensory attributes of steaks or ground beef. Aging impacted (P < 0.05) sensory attributes of ground beef. Diet and aging had no impact on lipid oxidative stability but affected fatty acid composition of raw ground beef.     

COMPOSITION OF WASHED MECHANICALLY SEPARATED AND HAND BONED BEEF

Washed mechanically separated (MS) beef and washed hand boned (HB) beef samples were prepared with an emulsifier or silent cutter. Higher yields of washed beef were obtained with the silent cutter, but differences in composition were small. Bone particle size in MS beef was reduced with the emulsifier and the silent cutter. Washed MS beef contained more iron, fat and cholesterol than washed HB beef. Collagen content of washed MS beef was about twice as high (P < 0.05) as that of washed HB beef. The major proteins in all washed beef lots were myosin and actin. Minor differences in amino acids and fatty acids between MS beef and HP beef existed. Binding properties of washed beef and fish surimi in restructured beef steaks were similar. Overall, washed MS and HB beef are low in fat and high in protein quality and have the potential to replace much of the salt in restructured beef products.     

ACCELERATED PROCESSED RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS

Muscles from ungraded (no roll) beef arm chucks of A maturity steer carcasses were removed at 1 and 24 h postmortem. High connective tissue and fatty portions were reduced to 3.0 mm particle size and other muscles were comminuted to 9.9 mm. These materials were formulated with 1.0% NaCl and 0.25% sodium tripolyphosphate, converted into 25 mm thick restructured steaks and packaged. Subjective evaluations were conducted after 3 and 7 days of storage for appearance and taste attributes by seven trained panelists. Objective measurements were taken for color and tenderness traits, collagen solubility and oxidative rancidity. Postrigor steaks experienced less (P < 0.05) oxidative rancidity development with superior tenderness ratings after 7 days of storage. Rigor state of raw materials had no effect (P > 0.05) on microbial growth, peak break force, color, overall appearance, flavor, and collagen solubility of samples with the same storage periods. Oxidative rancidity of prerigor samples increased (P < 0.05) with additional storage time.