The impact and response to electronic bullying and traditional bullying among adolescents

With adolescents’ frequent use of social media, electronic bullying has emerged as a powerful platform for peer victimization. The present two studies explore how adolescents perceive electronic vs. traditional bullying in emotional impact and strategic responses. In Study 1, 97 adolescents (mean age = 15) viewed hypothetical peer victimization scenarios, in parallel electronic and traditional forms, with female characters experiencing indirect relational aggression and direct verbal aggression. In Study 2, 47 adolescents (mean age = 14) viewed the direct verbal aggression scenario from Study 1, and a new scenario, involving male characters in the context of direct verbal aggression. Participants were asked to imagine themselves as the victim in all scenarios and then rate their emotional reactions, strategic responses, and goals for the outcome. Adolescents reported significant negative emotions and disruptions in typical daily activities as the victim across divergent bullying scenarios. In both studies few differences emerged when comparing electronic to traditional bullying, suggesting that online and off-line bullying are subtypes of peer victimization. There were expected differences in strategic responses that fit the medium of the bullying. Results also suggested that embarrassment is a common and highly relevant negative experience in both indirect relational and direct verbal aggression among adolescents.     

Are Cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression

Cyberbullying, or online aggression, is an issue of increasing concern, however little research has been conducted on the motivations underlying this form of aggression. Using a mixed-method approach, by means of survey and interview data, we explored whether online aggressive acts were motivated by proactive (intentionally aggressing to obtain a resource or a goal), and/or reactive (aggression that occurs in reaction to provocation) reasons. Participants for the survey portion of the study included 733 adolescents between the ages of 10 and 18, while a subset of 15 adolescents participated in semi-structured interviews. Factor analysis revealed that, in contrast to traditional forms of bullying, adolescents do not identify themselves according to the role they played in an internet aggressive situation (i.e. bully, victim, witness), but according to the method of aggression they used (i.e. sending mean messages, posting embarrassing photos, and developing hostile websites). More interestingly, regression analyses demonstrated that motivations for aggressing online also varied according to method of aggression rather than role. For example, adolescents who chose to aggress by posting mean messages or posting embarrassing photos were more likely to do so for reactive reasons, while adolescents who spent time creating hostile websites did so for proactive reasons.     

Does cyberbullying overlap with school bullying when taking modality of involvement into account?

Education professionals and researchers are concerned by school bullying and cyberbullying because of its repercussions on students’ health and the school climate. However, only a few studies investigating the impact of school versus cyberbullying have systematically explored whether student victims and perpetrators are involved in school bullying only, cyberbullying only, or both. The aim of the present study was thus to examine the possible overlap, as well as the similarities and/or differences, between these two forms of bullying when taking modality of involvement into account. Individual interviews were conducted with 1422 junior high- and high-school students (girls = 43%, boys = 57%, mean age = 14.3 ± 2.7 years). Results showed that cyberbullying and school bullying overlapped very little. The majority of students involved in cyberbullying were not simultaneously involved in school bullying. Moreover, results indicated that psychosocial problems (psychological distress, social disintegration, general aggression) varied according to the form of bullying. Victims of school bullying had greater internalizing problems than cybervictims, while school bullies were more aggressive than cyberbullies. Given the sizable proportion of adolescents involved in bullying (school and cyber) and its significant relationship with mental health, the issue warrants serious attention from school and public health authorities.     

A process model of cyberbullying in adolescence

Cyberbullying is an emerging form of aggression that utilizes information and communication technologies (ICTs). While cyberbullying incidents attract considerable attention, research on the causes and psychosocial predictors of cyberbullying is still limited. The present study used an integrated theoretical model incorporating empathy, moral disengagement, and social cognitions related to cyberbullying. Structured questionnaires were administered to 355 randomly selected adolescents (M = 14.7, SD = 1.20). Linear regression analysis showed that social norms, prototype similarity and situational self-efficacy directly predicted cyberbullying expectations. Multiple mediation modelling indicated that normative influences mediated the effects of moral disengagement and affective empathy on cyberbullying expectations. These findings provide valuable information regarding the effect of both distal and proximal risk factors for cyberbullying in adolescence, highlight the relationship between normative processes and moral self-regulation, and set the basis for related educational and preventive interventions.     

The emotional impact of cyberbullying: Differences in perceptions and experiences as a function of role

Research is accumulating to confirm adverse consequences of cyberbullying. Less is known about the perceptions, expectations and reactions of those involved as a function of their different roles (e.g., as bullies, victims, bully-victims) and how this relates to their experiences of traditional bullying. We examined whether cyberbullies' beliefs about the impact of their actions reflects the impact as reported by cybervictims themselves. We tested also whether the emotional reactions to cyberbullying differed depending upon whether the victim was or was not also a victim of traditional bullying behaviours. Participants were 1353 Spanish adolescents. Approximately 8% reported experiences of cyberbullying (compared to 12% reporting experiences of traditional bullying). Cyberbullies believed that their victims would experience more discomfort than cybervictims actually reported experiencing. Those who had experienced victimization in both traditional and cyber contexts evaluated cyberbullying as having greater negative impact than did those who had experienced victimization only in cyber contexts. Perceptions differed according to role and the context(s) in which bullying has been experienced. Findings are discussed in relation to the ways in which technologically delivered aggression may differ from traditional bullying.     

Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully

Cyberbullying on social network sites poses a significant threat to the mental and physical health of victimized adolescents. Although the role of bystanders in solving bullying instances has been demonstrated repeatedly in research on traditional bullying, their role in cyberbullying remains relatively understudied. Therefore, we set up an experimental scenario study in order to examine the influence of contextual factors (severity of the incident, identity and behaviour of other bystanders) on bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully in cases of harassment on Facebook. Four hundred and fifty-three second year students of Flemish secondary schools participated in the study. The results on the one hand showed that bystanders had higher behavioural intentions to help the victim when they witnessed a more severe incident. Incident severity also interacted with other bystanders’ identity in influencing behavioural intentions to help the victim. On the other hand, bystanders had higher behavioural intentions to join in the bullying when other bystanders were good friends rather than acquaintances. In addition, an interaction effect was found between other bystanders’ identity and behaviour on behavioural intentions to join in the bullying. Furthermore, both helping and reinforcing behavioural intentions differed according to gender.     

Beyond search and communication: Development and validation of the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS)

Internet self-efficacy is a pivotal construct for understanding a wide range of online activities. Human activity has been developing in new directions along with the evolution of the Internet over the last few decades. A self-efficacy measure which might appropriately reflect these changes is still lacking in the literature. To address this research gap, the current study developed the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS) and tested its validity and reliability. A sample of 349 undergraduate students completed an assessment battery including the ISS. A 17-item five-factor model was extracted from an EFA. Using a CFA, the 17-item five-factor model obtained from the EFA was cross-validated and the results revealed acceptable model fits where χ²(df = 107) = 198.987, NFI = .918, CFI = .960, and RMESA = .067 (95% C.I.; 052, .081). Also, the ISS showed good convergent validity, evidenced by the significant relationships with Internet outcome expectancy and Internet anxiety.     

Cyberspace as a generator of changes in the aggressive-victim role

The interaction of adolescents’ presential and cyberspace contexts accentuates the emergence of the aggressive-victim role. This profile takes on new dimensions as a result of the many combinations involved in the co-existence of bullying and cyberbullying. The twofold object of the present work was to: (i) determine the prevalence of victim-aggressive in the various forms that this role might be found in the context of bullying and cyberbullying; and (ii) explore the synergistic relationship established between the type and frequency of the abuse suffered and the type and frequency of the aggression perpetrated. The sample consisted of 1648 adolescents of from 12 to 16 years in age. The instrument used to acquire the data was a questionnaire. The results revealed the existence of four categories of aggressive victims: traditional aggressive-victims, aggressivecybervictims, cyberaggresive-victims, and cyberaggresive-cybervictims. The types of bullying suffered and perpetrated were found to be directly related and the frequencies of these two classes of attack were positively correlated. This allows one to predict the cyberspace and presential behaviour that will be displayed by adolescents who are being subjected to certain types of bullying and cyberbullying.     

Anonymity and roles associated with aggressive posts in an online forum

Cyberbullying is a growing concern in online communications. Cyberbullying has negative impacts such as distress or suicide of a victim. One common type of cyberbullying attack utilizes aggressive forum posts to insult or threaten a victim. Automated tools to classify cyberbullying may aid in avoiding or reducing the negative impacts of cyberbullying. One approach to produce an automated tool is to identify features of forum posts which may be indicators of cyberbullying. One feature of a forum post is the role of the author of the forum post, such as a bully, victim, or defender. Another feature is whether the forum post insults or threatens an individual (e.g., contains insults directed at a victim). Attackers may use aggressive forum posts to attack someone and defenders may use aggressive forum posts to retaliate against attackers. Another feature is whether the communication is anonymous (e.g., sending forum posts with no identifier) since cyberbullies utilize anonymity to reduce the ability of the victim to defend themselves and to shield the cyberbully from social consequences. In this paper, forum posts were labeled in an online forum for these features. Text matching techniques had some success in identifying aggressiveness forum posts including both attacks and defends. Anonymity of forum posts (i.e., forum posts with no identifier) was identified as a criterion to distinguish attackers (more anonymous relative to non-aggressive communications) from defenders (less anonymous relative to non-aggressive communications).     

Who's to blame?: The effects of victim disclosure on bystander reactions to cyberbullying

Recent evidence suggests that bystanders are even less likely to intervene with online compared to offline bullying. Given that receiving social support following bullying can buffer victims from maladjustment, it is important to consider specific factors influencing bystanders' intention to intervene and help the victim in online contexts. The current experiment examined how cybervictims' disclosures (i.e., sharing personal information) on Facebook influence bystanders' attributions of blame, empathy, and intention to intervene on behalf of a victim following a cyberbullying incident. Participants (N = 118) were randomly assigned to view the Facebook profile of a cybervictim who posted an update ranging in personal disclosure (high vs. low) and valence (positive vs. negative). Results indicate that viewing the high disclosure profile (i.e., more personal post from victim), regardless of valence, caused participants to blame the victim more and feel less empathy for the victim, which in turn predicted lower likelihood of bystander intervention with the bullying incident. These results are discussed in terms of implications for encouraging positive bystander behavior in response to incidents of cyberbullying.     

Exploring cyberbullying and face-to-face bullying in working life – Prevalence,targets and expressions

While cyberbullying among children and adolescents is a well-investigated phenomenon, few studies have centred on adults' exposure to cyberbullying in working life. Drawing on a large sample of 3371 respondents, this study investigates the prevalence of cyberbullying and face-to-face bullying in Swedish working life and its relation to gender and organisational position. Using a cyberbullying behaviour questionnaire (CBQ), the result shows that 9.7% of the respondents can be labelled as cyberbullied in accordance with Leymann's cut-off criterion. Fewer respondents, .7%, labelled themselves as cyberbullied and 3.5% labelled themselves as bullied face-to-face. While no significant relationships with gender or organisational position was found for individuals exposed to face-to-face bullying, this study showed that men to a higher degree than women were exposed to cyberbullying. Moreover, individuals with a supervisory position were more exposed to cyberbullying than individuals with no managerial responsibility.     

Cyberbullying among young adults in Malaysia: The roles of gender,age and Internet frequency

This study investigated the extent of young adults’ (N = 393; 17–30 years old) experience of cyberbullying, from the perspectives of cyberbullies and cyber-victims using an online questionnaire survey. The overall prevalence rate shows cyberbullying is still present after the schooling years. No significant gender differences were noted, however females outnumbered males as cyberbullies and cyber-victims. Overall no significant differences were noted for age, but younger participants were found to engage more in cyberbullying activities (i.e. victims and perpetrators) than the older participants. Significant differences were noted for Internet frequency with those spending 2–5 h online daily reported being more victimized and engage in cyberbullying than those who spend less than an hour daily. Internet frequency was also found to significantly predict cyber-victimization and cyberbullying, indicating that as the time spent on Internet increases, so does the chances to be bullied and to bully someone. Finally, a positive significant association was observed between cyber-victims and cyberbullies indicating that there is a tendency for cyber-victims to become cyberbullies, and vice versa. Overall it can be concluded that cyberbullying incidences are still taking place, even though they are not as rampant as observed among the younger users.     

Cyber victim and bullying scale: A study of validity and reliability

The purpose of this study is to develop a reliable and valid scale, which determines cyber victimization and bullying behaviors of high school students. Research group consisted of 404 students (250 male, 154 male) in Sakarya, in 2009–2010 academic years. In the study sample, mean age is 16.68. Content validity and face validity of the scale was provided via field specialists’ judgment. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were performed for investigation of the factor structure of the scale. As a result of principal component analysis of cyber victim subscale three factors emerged which accounted for the 46.38% of the total variance. Also for cyber bullying subscale, same three factors emerged accounting for the 49.18% of the total variance. Scales with 22 items under 3 factors were tested with confirmatory factor analysis for each victim and bullying variables. Three factors were named as cyber verbal bullying, hiding identity and cyber forgery. Three factors model of scales were found theoretically and statistically fitted after confirmatory factor analysis. For criterion related validity the correlation between cyber victim and bullying scale and Aggression Scale was calculated as .27 and .36, respectively. The internal consistency coefficients calculated for reliability. Cyber victim and bullying scales’ internal consistency coefficients were .89 and split-half coefficients were .79. for both scales. Test-retest reliability for cyber victim .85, for cyber bullying respectively .90 was found. These results demonstrate that the Cyber Victim and Bullying Scale’ is a valid and reliable instrument.     

Cyberbullying: Eliciting harm without consequence

Students (N = 260; M age = 12.88 years) reported their involvement in cyberbullying as well as their perceptions of the likelihood of cyberbully behavior eliciting harm, being reported, and the initiator receiving consequences. Also, students’ scores on the Basic Empathy Scale were examined. The majority (67%) of students reported participation in cyberbullying and girls were more likely than boys to self-report cybervictimization and cyberbully-victimization. Students rated the likelihood of cybervictims being hurt significantly higher than the likelihood of cyberbullies receiving consequences. Furthermore, self-reported cybervictims and cyberbully-victims scored higher than students not involved in cyberbullying on the cognitive empathy scale and cyberbully-victims scored higher than cyberbullies and not-involved students on the affective empathy scale. These results suggest that youth are knowingly engaging in harmful behavior on the internet that they believe is unlikely to receive consequences.     

The new face of violence tendency:Cyber bullying perpetrators and their victims

The present study examines the role of violence tendecy on cyberbullying perpetrations and their victims. Turkish adolescents [N = 286, 167 girls (58,4%) and 119 boys (41,6%)] aged 15–18 years [mean age of 17.6 years (df:0.78)] were recruited from different high school types [101 (35.4%) of the participants were students in vocational high school, 88 (30.7%) anatolian high school and 97 (33.9%) public high school]. Participants completed Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory (RCBI, Topçu & Erdur-Baker, 2010) and Violence Tendency Scale (VTS, Haskan & Yıldırım, 2012). Collected data were analyzed Pearson correlation coefficients and simple regression. Pearson correlations revealed that violence tendency was positively related to cyberbullying perpetration (r = 0.344, p < 0.01). Also, violence tendency was positively related to cyber victimization (r = 0.242, p < 0.01). Also simple regressions revealed that violence tendency was significant individual predictors both cyberbullying perpetration and cyber victimization.     

Facebook bullying: An extension of battles in school

This study examines the phenomenon of cyberbullying on Facebook and how it is related to school bullying among secondary school students in Singapore, aged 13–17. We also focus on generic use of Facebook and risky Facebook behaviors as the predictors of cyberbullying and victimization on Facebook. 1676 secondary students, from two secondary schools, participated in a pen and paper survey. The findings show that the intensity of Facebook use and engagement in risky Facebook behaviors were related to Facebook victimization and Facebook bullying, respectively. Moderately strong positive relationships between school bullying and Facebook bullying, as well as between school victimization and Facebook victimization, were also uncovered.     

The validation of the E-Victimisation Scale (E-VS) and the E-Bullying Scale (E-BS) for adolescents

This study investigates the psychometric properties of the E-Victimisation Scale (E-VS) and E-Bullying Scale (E-BS) designed to assess Cyber Bullying among Chinese adolescents. Participants were 484 adolescents aged between 11–16 years randomly recruited from high schools within a region. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were applied to investigate the factorial structure of these scales. Reliability was examined by Cronbach’s alpha coefficients by sex. The convergent validity was investigated by correlations among these scales and the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression for Children as well as the Zung’s Anxiety Scales. A single-factor model for the E-VS and a 2-factor model for the E-BS were resulted from the EFA with large factor loadings and about 47% and 56% of variance explained respectively. Cronhach’s alpha values provided evidence for good internal reliability with values ranging from 0.55 to 0.96. Correlations between the E-VS and Depression as well as Anxiety scales showed positive and significant relationships, however, the E-BS was only related to Depression. Psychometric evidence has shown that both E-VS and E-BS are valid instruments for measuring Cyber bullying behaviour and victimisation. Further studies are required on the test–retest reliability, discriminate validity, responsiveness, as well as normative information for standardisation.     

Discrepant gender patterns for cyberbullying and traditional bullying – An analysis of Swedish adolescent data

In the wake of the rapid development of modern IT technology, cyberspace bullying has emerged among adolescents. The aim of the present study was to examine gender differences among adolescents involved in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Cross-sectional data from 2989 Swedish students aged 13–15 were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. The results show discrepant gender patterns of involvement in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. First, although there were only minimal gender differences among traditional victims, girls are more likely than boys to be cybervictims when occasional cyberbullying is used as a cut-off point. Second, whereas boys are more likely to be traditional bullies, girls are as likely as boys to be cyberbullies. In conclusion, compared to traditional bullying, girls are generally more involved in cyberbullying relative to boys. We discuss these results in the light of adolescents’ usage of computerized devices.     

The nature of cyberbullying,and strategies for prevention

Cyberbullying has been identified as an important problem amongst youth in the last decade. This paper reviews some recent findings and discusses general concepts within the area. The review covers definitional issues such as repetition and power imbalance, types of cyberbullying, age and gender differences, overlap with traditional bullying and sequence of events, differences between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, motives for and impact of cyber victimization, coping strategies, and prevention/intervention possibilities. These issues will be illustrated by reference to recent and current literature, and also by in-depth interviews with nine Swedish students aged 13–15 years, who had some first-hand experience of one or more cyberbullying episodes. We conclude by discussing the evidence for different coping, intervention and prevention strategies.     

Evaluation of serious game for changing students' behaviour in bullying situation

The aim of the study was to test the effectiveness of a serious game in improving the helping behaviours of bystanders in bullying situations by using a multimethod approach. Students (N=345, aged 12 to 14) participated in an experimental study with one experimental and two control groups. Before and after playing the game, all students completed an online questionnaire about their knowledge, experiences and behaviours related to bullying, and their behaviours in everyday social situations. For the experimental group, players' reactions during game-play were recorded. Results showed that students' social behaviour displayed before gaming experience determined their playing activities. Besides, most of the students who declared in pre-test that they do not help the victim, although they think they should, chose helping behaviour in all bullying situations in by stander role in the game. Results indicate weak positive effect of the game on students' behavioural choices.