Sulfide capacity of CaO-CaF2-SiO2 slags

The sulfide capacityC _S ^2- = (pct S^2-) · (P _{O 2}/P _{S 2})^1/2) of CaO-CaF₂-SiO₂ slags saturated with CaO, 3CaO · SiO₂ or 2CaOSiO₂ was determined at 1200 °C, 1250 °C, 1300 °C, and 1350 °C by equilibrating molten slag, molten silver, and CO-CO₂ gas mixtures. Higher sulfide capacities were obtained for CaO-saturated slags. A drastic decrease was observed in those values when the ratio pct CaO/pct SiO₂ is less than 2. The sulfur partition between carbon-saturated iron melts and presently investigated slags was calculated by using the sulfide capacities obtained and the activity coefficient of sulfur in carbon-saturated iron, which was also experimentally determined. For slags saturated with CaO, partitions of sulfur as high as 10,000 were obtained at 1300 °C and 1350 °C. Correlations between the sulfide capacity and other basicity indexes such as carbonate capacity and theoretical optical basicity were also discussed. Formerly with the Department of Metallurgy, The University of Tokyo.     

A Sulfide Capacity Prediction Model of CaO-SiO2-MgO-FeO-MnO-Al2O3 Slags during the LF Refining Process Based on the Ion and Molecule Coexistence Theory

A sulfide capacity prediction model of CaO-SiO₂-MgO-FeO-MnO-Al₂O₃ ladle furnace (LF) refining slags has been developed based on the ion and molecule coexistence theory (IMCT). The predicted sulfide capacity of the LF refining slags has better accuracy than the measured sulfide capacity of the slags at the middle and final stages during the LF refining process. Increasing slag binary basicity, optical basicity, and the Mannesmann index can lead to an increase of the predicted sulfide capacity for the LF refining slags as well as to an increase of the sulfur distribution ratio between the slags and molten steel at the middle and final stages during the LF refining process. The calculated equilibrium mole numbers, mass action concentrations of structural units or ion couples, rather than mass percentages of components, are recommended to represent the slag composition for correlating with the sulfide capacity of the slags. The developed sulfide capacity IMCT model can calculate not only the total sulfide capacity of the slags but also the respective sulfide capacity of free CaO, MgO, FeO, and MnO in the slags. The comprehensive contribution of the combined ion couples (Ca²⁺ + O²⁻) and (Mn²⁺ + O²⁻) on the desulfurization reactions accounts for 96.23 pct; meanwhile, the average contribution of the ion couple (Fe²⁺ + O²⁻) and (Mg²⁺ + O²⁻) only has a negligible contribution as 3.13 pct and 0.25 pct during the LF refining process, respectively. The oxygen activity of bulk molten steel in LF is controlled by the [Al]–[O] equilibrium, and the oxygen activity of molten steel at the slag–metal interface is controlled by the (FeO)–[O] equilibrium. The ratio of the oxygen activity of molten steel at the slag–metal interface to the oxygen activity of bulk molten steel will decrease from 37 to 5 at the initial stage, and further decrease from 28 to 4 at the middle stage, but will maintain at a reliable constant as 5 to 14 at the final stage during the LF refining process. The proposed high-oxygen potential layer of molten steel beneath the slag–metal interface can be quantitatively verified.     

Measurement of FeO activity and solubility of MgO in smelting slags

In bath smelting, the FeO activity of the slag must be known to predict the equilibrium of slag-metal reactions and for effective control of the rate of reduction in the system. Also, knowledge of the solubility of MgO in these slags is useful for reducing refractory consumption. A series of measurements of the FeO activity in simulated bath smelting slags (CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-MgO_sat-FeO) were conducted by the electromotive force (EMF) technique. The influence of the slag composition on the relationship between the FeO activity coefficient and FeO content was studied. It has been found that the measured FeO activity coefficient decreases with increasing FeO content in the slag and increases slightly with increasing slag basicity, which is defined as (CaO + MgO)/(SiO₂ + Al₂O₃) on a mole fraction basis. The measured values of the FeO activity coefficient are in reasonable agreement with previously published data. The solubility of MgO was also measured and found to rang from 16 to 30 pct and decrease with increasing basicity.     

The sulfur partition ratio with Fe-CSAT melts and the sulfide capacity of CaO-SiO2-Na2O- (Ai2O3) slags

The sulfur partition ratio between slag and carbon saturated iron and the sulfide capacity of CaO-Na₂O-SiO₂ slags and a 48 pet CaO-45 pet Al₂O₃-7 pet SiO₂-(Na₂O) slag have been mea-sured at 1400 °C. The addition of Na₂O to a CaO-SiO₂ slag increases the sulfur partition ratio and the sulfide capacity; however, Na₂O at low concentrations has no measurable effect on the sulfide capacity of a CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ slag. To convert the sulfur partition ratio to the sulfide capacity, the oxygen potential was calculated assuming equilibrium between iron in the alloy and FeO in the slag with the activity of FeO calculated via a regular solution model. The optical basicity may be used to correlate the data, but at high Na₂O contents the data do not adhere to the correlation previously developed for CaO-based slags. Formerly Graduate Student at Carnegie Mellon University     

Slag foaming in bath smelting

Slag foaming measurements in terms of the foaming index (∑) were conducted on bath smelting-type slags (CaO-SiO₂-FeO, CaO-SiO₂-MgO-Al₂O₃-FeO) at 1773 K. It was found that the slag foam stability decreases with increasing FeO (FeO > 2 pct) content and basicity. For the slag system (CaO-SiO₂-FeO), no stable foam was observed at very low FeO content (<2 pct). As pct FeO increases, the slag foaming index goes through a maximum and then decreases; a similar phenomenon was observed for CaO-SiO₂-NiO slags with respect to the NiO content. The foaming index determined from the normal small-scale experiments (3.8-cm ID diameter) were confirmed on a larger scale (9.2-cm ID diameter), indicating that the foaming index is independent of container size. Measurements were also made for the actual compositions for bath smelting slags. For these slags, the foaming index is higher than those of simple CaO-SiO₂-FeO slags, because MgO and Al₂O₃ may increase their viscosities. The foam index is believed to be a function of the physical properties of the slag. Consequently, a dimensional analysis was performed, and a correlation was developed relating the foaming index to the viscosity, surface tension, and density of the slag. An estimation of slag foaming in actual pilot plant trials was also made from the results of the present study. Good agreement was observed between the predicted and observed foam heights and indicated coke in the slag can reduce the foam height by more than 50 pct. R. Jiang, Formerly Graduate Student, Carnegie Mellon University, is deceased.     

Effect of CaO Addition on Iron Recovery from Copper Smelting Slags by Solid Carbon

We investigated the effect of flux (lime) addition on the reduction behavior of iron oxide in copper slag by solid carbon at 1773 K (1500 °C). In particular, we quantified the recovery of iron by performing typical kinetic analysis and considering slag foaming, which is strongly affected by the thermophysical properties of slags. The iron oxide in the copper slag was consistently reduced by solid carbon over time. In the kinetic analysis, we determined mass transfer coefficients with and without considering slag foaming using a gas holdup factor. The mass transfer of FeO was not significantly changed by CaO addition when slag foaming was ignored, whereas the mass transfer of FeO when slag foaming was considered was at a minimum in the 20 mass pct CaO system. Iron recovery, defined as the ratio of the amount of iron clearly transferred to the base metal ingot to the initial amount of iron in the slag phase before reduction, was maximal (about 90 pct) in the 20 mass pct CaO system. Various types of solid compounds, including Mg₂SiO₄ and Ca₂SiO₄, were precipitated in slags during the FeO reduction process, and these compounds strongly affected the reduction kinetics of FeO as well as iron recovery. Iron recovery was the greatest in the 20 mass pct CaO system because no solid compounds formed in this system, resulting in a highly fluid slag. This fluid slag allowed iron droplets to fall rapidly with high terminal velocity to the bottom of the crucible. A linear relationship between the mass transfer coefficient of FeO considering slag foaming and foam stability was obtained, from which we concluded that the mass transfer of FeO in slag was effectively promoted not only by gas evolution due to reduction reactions but also by foamy slag containing solid compounds. However, the reduced iron droplets were finely dispersed in foamy and viscous slags, making actual iron recovery a challenge.     

Phase Equilibria in the System “FeO”-CaO-SiO<Subscript>2</Subscript>-Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>-MgO at Different CaO/SiO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Ratios

The “FeO”-containing slags play an important role in the operation of an ironmaking blast furnace (BF), in particular the primary slags such as the system “FeO”-CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-2 mass pct MgO with CaO/SiO₂ weight ratios of 1.3, 1.5, and 1.8 saturated with metallic iron. To investigate the characteristics of such a slag system and its behavior in BF, the phase equilibria and liquidus temperatures in the slag system have been experimentally determined using the high-temperature equilibration and quenching technique followed by an electron probe X-ray microanalysis (EPMA). Isotherms between 1553 K and 1603 K (1280 °C and 1330 °C) were determined in the primary phase fields of dicalcium silicate, melilite, spinel, and monoxide [(Mg,Fe²⁺)O]. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams of (CaO + SiO₂)-Al₂O₃-“FeO” with a fixed MgO concentration at 2 mass pct and at CaO/SiO₂ ratios of 1.3, 1.5, and 1.8 have been discussed, respectively, simplifying the complexity of the slag system for easy understanding and applying in BF operation. It was found that the liquidus temperatures increase in melilite and spinel primary phase fields, but decrease in dicalcium silicate and monoxide primary phase fields with increasing Al₂O₃/(CaO + SiO₂) ratio. In addition, the liquidus temperatures decrease with increasing “FeO” concentration in dicalcium silicate and melilite primary phase fields, while showing an increasing trend in the spinel and monoxide primary phase fields. The data resulted from this study can be used to improve and optimize currently available database of thermodynamic models used in FactSage.     

Study on the foaming of CaO-SiO2-FeO slags: Part I. Foaming parameters and experimental results

In order to understand the effect of slag composition on foaming in iron and steelmaking processes, slag foaming was quantitatively studied for CaO-SiO₂-FeO slags in the temperature range of 1250 °C to 1400 °C. It was found that slag foaming could be characterized by a foaming index (Σ), which is equal to the retention or traveling time of the gas in the slag, and the average foam life ( τ). The effects of P₂O₅, S, MgO, and CaF₂ on foaming were studied. As expected, slag foaming increased with increasing viscosity and decreasing surface tension. It was found that suspended second-phase solid particles such as CaO, 2CaO SiO₂, and MgO stabilized the foam and had a larger effect on foaming than changes in viscosity and surface tension for the slags studied. Kimihisa Ito, Research Associate, formerly with the Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie Mellon University     

Reduction of FeO in smelting slags by solid carbon: Experimental results

The reduction of CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-FeO slags containing less than 10 wt pct FeO by solid carbonaceous materials such as graphite, coke, and coal char was investigated at reaction temperatures of 1400 °C to 1450 °C. The carbon monoxide evolution rate from the system was measured using stationary and rotating carbon rods, stationary horizontal carbon surfaces, and pinned stationary spheres as the reductants. The measured reaction rate ranged from 3.25 × 10^?7 mol cm^?2 s^?1 at 2.1 pct FeO under static conditions to 3.6 × 10^?6 mol cm^?2 s^?1 at 9.5 pct FeO for a rotating rod experiment. Visualization of the experiment using X-ray fluoroscopy showed that gas evolution from the reduction reaction caused the slag to foam during the experiment and that a gas film formed between the carbon surface and the slag at all times during experimentation. The reaction rate increased with increased slag FeO contents under all experimental conditions; however, this variation was not linear with FeO content. The reaction rate also increased with the rotation speed of the carbon rod at a given FeO content. A small increase in the reaction rate, at a given FeO content, was found when horizontal coke surfaces and coke spheres were used as the reductant as compared to graphite and coal char. The results of these experiments do not fit the traditional mass transfer correlations due to the evolution of gas during the experiment. The experimental results are consistent, however, with the hypothesis that liquid phase mass transfer of iron oxide is a major factor in the rate of reduction of iron oxide from slags by carbonaceous materials. In a second article, the individual rates of the possible limiting steps will be compared and a mixed control model will be used to explain the measured reaction rates.     

Dissolution Behavior of Rhodium in the Na2O-SiO2 and CaO-SiO2 Slags

To understand the behavior of rhodium during its recovery process, the dissolution behaviors of rhodium in Na₂O-SiO₂ and in CaO-SiO₂ slags at temperatures ranging from 1423 K to 1623 K (from 1150 °C to 1350 °C) and from 1773 K to 1873 K (from 1500 °C to 1600 °C), respectively, in an oxidizing atmosphere were investigated. The solubility of rhodium in the slags was found to increase with increasing oxygen partial pressure, temperature, and the basic oxide content. The correlation between the solubility of rhodium and the oxygen partial pressure suggested that rhodium dissolved into the slags as RhO_1.5. The dissolution of rhodium was slightly endothermic: the enthalpy change of the dissolution of solid rhodium was determined to be 50 ± 10 kJ/mol for the 50(mass pct)Na₂O-50SiO₂; and 188 ± 94 kJ/mol for the 56(mass pct)CaO-44SiO₂ slag systems. The increase in the solubility of rhodium with the basic oxide content indicated that rhodium exhibits acidic behavior in slags. The correlation between the solubility of rhodium and the sulfide capacity of the slags suggested that the ionic species of rhodium in slags is the rhodate ion, RhO ₂ ^? . The rhodate capacity of the slags was defined, and its application to estimate the possible rhodium content in various slag systems was proposed.     

Reduction of iron oxides from liquid slags using a graphite rotating disc

Research work has been carried out on the reduction of FeO from liquid slags of the CaO‐FeO‐SiO₂ ternary system using a graphite rotating disc technique. The investigations were conducted on slags with a basicity of CaO/SiO₂ = 1.27 and FeO contents of 20 and 60%, at temperatures of 1350 and 1420°C. The calculated viscosity range for these slags is within 2.53 – 0.43 dPa·s. It has been found that the factor controlling the reduction process is diffusion of FeO towards the disc surface, both in the case of the reduction from the slag with 20% FeO and in the case of the reduction from the slag with 60% FeO fraction. The diffusion coefficient of FeO at the reduction temperature of 1350°C is of the order of magnitudes of 10^?7 cm²/s, while at 1420°C it reaches the order of 10^?6 cm²/s. The calculated thickness values for the limiting diffusion layers range from 8.54·10^?3 to 0.70·10^?3 cm. It has been found that with increasing reduction rate also Boudouard's reaction starts to be important to the overall reduction rate. The limiting reduction rate at which Boudouard's reaction starts to be important to the entire process is dependent on temperature, being approximately 10.0·10^?6 mol FeO/cm² s at 1350°C, and approximately 15.0·10^?6 mol FeO/cm² s at 1420°C.     

Activity of MnO in MnO‐CaO‐MgO‐SiO2‐Al2O3 Slags at 1500 °C

A thermodynamic study was made on the MnO‐CaO‐MgO‐SiO₂‐Al₂O₃ slags that are typical of the production of ferromanganese in submerged arc furnaces. The Al₂O₃ content of the slags was kept constant at 5 per cent by mass. The activity‐composition relationship in Pt‐Mn binary alloys were re‐determined for calibration purposes at 1300, 1400 and 1500°C and po₂ values between 5.40×10^?6 and 4.54×10^?13 atm. A linear regression equation was derived to predict the activity coefficients of manganese, in Pt‐Mn alloys at 1500°C. The effect of concentration, basicity ratio and CaO‐to‐MgO ratio on MnO activities in above mentioned complex slags was investigated at 1500 °C and at two different po₂ values of 4.76×10^?7 and 5.80×10^?8 atm. It was found that a_Mno values increase with increasing MnO, and tend to increase with an increasing CaO‐to‐MgO ratio. The a_MnO values also increase with increasing basicity ratio. The activity coefficient of MnO increases with an increase in its mole fraction in the slag. Quadratic multivariable regression model equations which represent the activity data successfully and which can be used to predict the MnO activities in the compositional range of this study were developed. The MnO activity data was interpreted in terms of a slag model which describes the thermodynamic properties of the slag successfully.     

Distribution of vanadium between SiO2 rich slags and carbon saturated liquid iron

In order to determine optimal slag compositions for the extraction of vanadium from hot metal to SiO₂ rich slags, vanadium distributions were determined between slags of the following systems: FeO*–SiO₂ [(%V) ã 1.7] FeO*–SiO₂(sat)-CaO,Na₂O,MgO,Al₂O₃,TiO₂ [(%V) ã 1.7] FeO*–SiO₂–VO_n [(%FeO*)/(%SiO₂) = 1.5–1.7] and carbon saturated liquid iron at 1 300°C using the solid iron foil technique. The distribution increased with FeO* content in the binary FeO*–SiO₂ system, while additions of CaO, Na₂O, MgO and Al₂O₃ to FeO*–SiO₂ based slags under SiO₂ saturation caused the distribution to decrease. A slight decrease in distribution was also observed with increasing vanadium oxide content in FeO*–SiO₂ based slags having a constant (%FeO*)/(%SiO₂) ratio. The highest vanadium distributions were found in SiO₂ saturated slags with high TiO₂ contents. Vanadium valencies in the slags were determined by a wet analytic titration technique and the results showed that V^III+ is predominant. It was suggested that the predominating ionic species of vanadium in SiO₂ saturated slags are V³⁺ and VO⁺ while a change towards VO^?₂ may occur for FeO rich slags.     

Thermodynamic Simulation of the Influence of the Temperature and the Basicity of a Boron-Containing Slag on Steel Desulfurization

The results of thermodynamic simulation of the desulfurization of a medium-carbon steel by slags of the CaO–SiO₂–MgO–Al₂O₃–B₂O₃ system are presented. The HSC Chemistry 6.12 software package is used for the simulation. The thermodynamic simulation is performed for 20 various chemical compositions of slags with various B₂O₃ contents (1–4%)¹ and basicities ((CaO)/(SiO₂) = 2–5). The computations are performed using the Equilibrium Compositions module in the temperature range from 1500 to 1700°C with an increment of 50°C at a gas phase pressure of 0.1 MPa. The main results of the calculations are presented as the dependences of the change in the sulfur content in steel [S] on the temperature, the content of B₂O₃, and the slag basicity. An increase in the temperature of metal desulfurization from 1500 to 1700°C exerts a favorable effect on the sulfur content for the studied range of slag basicities. In particular, the sulfur content in steel decreases from 0.012 to 0.009% when steel is processed with the slag having 3% B₂O₃ and a basicity (CaO)/(SiO₂) = 2. A positive effect of an increase in the slag basicity from 2 to 5 on metal desulfurization is observed: the degree of desulfurization increases from 61.1 to 97.2% at 1600°C and 3% B₂O₃ content in the slag. As the B₂O₃ content in a slag increases from 1 to 4%, its refining properties decrease significantly in the range of basicity not higher than 2. In the range of high slag basicities (3–4), the negative effect of acidic oxide B₂O₃ on the refining properties of the slag decreases, providing low sulfur contents (which do not exceed [S] = 0.003–0.004% at 4% B₂O₃). At a slag basicity of 5, the sulfur content in steel decreases to 0.001%, all other things being equal. The simulation results can be used for the calculation of steel desulfurization processed by slags containing B₂O₃.     

Sulfide Capacities of CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 Slags in the Temperature Range 1673 K to 1773?K (1400?°C to 1500?°C)

With a goal to estimate the sulfide capacities of slags used in the pretreatment of hot metal, the sulfide capacities of CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ slags were measured at 1673?K to 1773?K (1400?°C to 1500?°C). The gas?Cslag equilibrium technique has been used for this measurement. From the results obtained, it was found that the temperature dependence of the sulfide capacity of this slag is independent of the slag compositions. Therefore, a new empirical model based on optical basicity for sulfide capacity estimation of this slag was developed using the measured values of the current work and literature. With the use of the new model, the isosulfide capacity curves at 1673?K (1400?°C) were mapped.     

The CaS solubility in the CaO bearing slags

The CaS solubility and sulfide capacity for the CaO–SiO₂–CaF₂ and CaO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ systems have been measured at 1300°C and 1400°C, respectively. With the CaO–SiO₂–CaF₂ system, the slag doubly saturated with CaO and 3CaO · SiO₂ has the highest CaS solubility of 12.5 wt.%. On the liquidus the slag always has a higher CaS solubility than when it is not on the liquidus. The sulfide capacity was confirmed to decrease with increasing SiO₂ content. With the CaO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ system, the CaS solubility was found to depend only on CaO content. A good correlation between the sulfide capacity and the CaS solubility was observed as expected from theory. The temperature dependence of CaS solubility in those systems was also discussed.     

Thermodynamic behaviour of carbonate in CaO based slag

Carbonate solubility was measured for CaO bearing slag systems at 1600 °C under different thermodynamic conditions by using equilibration techniques. Carbonate solubility increased with activity of (CaO). The reaction mechanism of the carbonate dissolution in slag can be expressed as a reaction between CO₂ gaseous phase and oxygen ion to form carbonate (CO₃^2-). Carbonate capacities of various slags depended not only on oxygen ion but also activity coefficient of carbonate ion. The activity coefficient of carbonate ion in CaO-SiO₂ slag changed with CaO content, but that of CaO-Al₂O₃ slag did not change remarkably. Substitution of MgO by CaO for solubility of carbonate had a similar effect as in the case of carbide in CaO-SiO₂-MgO slag. The critical oxygen potential for carbide and carbonate stability was found to be 10-¹⁰ bar.     

The sulfur partition ratio and the sulfide capacity of Na2O-SiO2 slags at 1200 °C

The sulfur partition ratio between carbon-saturated iron and Na₂O-SiO₂ slags and the sulfide capacity of these slags have been measured at 1200 °C. The two measurements are consistent with each other and the results are compared with other investigations. These slags have higher sulfide capacities and partition ratios than equivalent CaO-based slags and are thus attractive desulfurizers. Both the sulfide capacity and the partition ratio increase with increasing Na₂O. The activity coefficient of Na₂S has been calculated; it also increases with increasing Na₂O. The solubility of sulfur in a slag of 0.4 mole fraction Na₂O is estimated to be 5 pct.     

Effect of water vapour content in H2–H2O–CO–CO2 mixtures on activity of iron oxide in slags relevant to novel flash ironmaking technology

Abstract

As an integral part of developing a novel flash ironmaking technology at the University of Utah, the activity of iron oxide in the slag was studied under three different gas atmospheres: H₂/H₂O (H₂), CO/CO₂/H₂/H₂O (reformed natural/coal gas), and CO/CO₂. The conditions of the slags investigated were MgO-saturated CaO–FeO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂–MnO (0·2–0·8 wt-%)–P₂O₅ (0·1–0·9 wt-%) in the temperature range 1550–1600°C with wt-% CaO/wt-% SiO₂ of 0·8 to 1·2, and under pO₂?=?2×10^?10–2×10^?9 atm. Water increased the activity coefficient of FeO in the slag and accordingly lowered the FeO content. The average FeO content was found to be 10, 11 and 16 wt-% under H₂/H₂O (H₂), CO/CO₂/H₂/H₂O (reformed natural/coal gas), and CO/CO₂, respectively. An empirical correlation for γ_FeO in slags under H₂/H₂O atmospheres was formulated to givelog γ_FeO?=??3·0623 X_FeO?3·1421 X_CaO?2·5068 X_MgO+2·1957     

Evaluation of the reduction of iron oxide from liquid slags using a graphite rotating disk

The rotating disk methodology has been used for examination of the reduction of FeO from CaO-FeO-SiO₂ liquid slags (20 and 60 pct FeO) with a CaO/SiO₂ ratio equal to 0.66 and 1.27, in the temperature range 1350 °C to 1420 °C. It has been found that the reduction proceeds under diffusion control. The calculated diffusion coefficients fall in the range 0.76·10⁻⁷ to 1.6·10⁻⁶ cm²/s. Comparison of these values with those given in the literature suggests that the calculated coefficients are related to the diffusion of oxygen ions in the slag. The calculated thickness of the limiting diffusion layer, δ, ranges from 0.65·10⁻³ to 5.25·10⁻³ cm, depending on the reduction conditions. The largest decrease in the limiting diffusion layer thickness takes place at low rotational speeds, i.e., 100 and 400 rev/min. The maximum value of the mass transfer coefficient is 1.71·10⁻³ cm/s for reduction from slag with a CaO/SiO₂ ratio of 1.27, 60 pct FeO, at 1420 °C and 2000 rev/min, and the minimum value is 0.27·10⁻⁴ cm/s for reduction from slag with a CaO/SiO₂ ratio of 0.66, 20 pct FeO, at 1350 °C and 100 rev/min. Good agreement has been found between experimental and calculated reduction rates at low disk rotations (100 and 400 rev/min).