Attentional difficulties in hyperactive and conduct-disordered children: a processing deficit

A random population sample of 1479 Chinese boys from Hong Kong was screened and diagnosed in a two-stage epidemiological study. Four groups, age 7-8, were distinguished: (1) a pure hyperactive group (HA), (2) a mixed hyperactive/conduct-disordered group (HA+CD), (3) a pure conduct-disordered group (CD), and (4) a normal control group (N). On a visual search task, only the HA children showed a specific processing deficit in performance. This confirms the diagnostic value of such a deficit for hyperactivity, differentiating it from conduct disorder. The failure to find a similar deficit in the HA+CD group raises questions concerning the clinical identity of these children. Each group showed a performance decrement over time in the visual search task but the decrement did not differ between the four groups. This observation is not congruent with the reports of a short attention span in hyperactive children; explanations of this apparent contradiction are considered.     

Activity and task performance of hyperactive children as a function of environmental stimulation.

11 hyperactive 7-11 yr olds in a high-stimulation environment were significantly less active and performed an academically related task no more poorly than when placed in a low-stimulation environment. Results reject the theory that for hyperactive children activity varies directly and performance inversely with amount of environmental stimulation. Understimulation rather than overstimulation apparently precipitates hyperactive behavior. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships of goal orientation, metacognitive activity, and practice strategies with learning outcomes and transfer.

A model of learning transfer that focused on the active role of the learner was developed and tested within a complex decision-making task. The study examined how individual differences, learning strategies, and training outcomes influenced transfer of learning to a more complex task. A sample of 93 undergraduate students participated in a 2-day radar operations study. Hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that mastery orientation was positively related to metacognitive activity of the learner. Metacognitive activity was significantly related to knowledge acquisition, skilled performance at the end of training, and self-efficacy. All 3 of these training outcomes were related to performance on the transfer task. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of color stimulation on performance and activity of hyperactive and nonhyperactive children.

Conducted a theoretically based investigation of color stimulation effects on hyperactivity. Moderating variables likely to be important in investigating these effects were identified as the nature of the task (learning and sustained attention), task factors that could provide changes in level of stimulation (task exposure, temporal placement of added stimulation), and child characteristics (sex). 66 hyperactive and 80 normal 1st–6th graders were administered a concept task and a vigilance task under 1 of 3 conditions: no stimulation added, stimulation added early, or stimulation added late. Findings show that stimulation added early or late to a sustained attention task could normalize the performance of hyperactive Ss and reduce their activity. When the task involved acquisition of new information, stimulation added late reduced the activity of the hyperactive Ss. Stimulation effects on concept task performance were, however, less interpretable due to task floor-effects. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between cognitive tempo and selective attention in learning disabled children

The relationship between cognitive tempo and selective attention in 29 learning disabled children was investigated. The performance of the 9 reflective and the 9 impulsive children on selective-attention tasks was compared. An examination of t tests and correlations between variables for each task showed a relationship between cognitive tempo and selective attention. This relationship was stronger for central than for incidental recall.     

The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: II. Academic, attentional, and neuropsychological status.

One hundred hyperactive children meeting research diagnostic criteria and 60 community control children were followed prospectively over an 8-year period into adolescence. Younger (12–24 years) and older (15–20 years) groups were tested on measures of academic skills, attention and impulse control, and select frontal lobe functions. At follow-up, hyperactive Ss demonstrated impaired academic achievement, impaired attention and impulse control, and greater off-task, restless, and vocal behavior during an academic task, compared with control Ss. The limited set of frontal lobe measures did not differentiate groups. Age did not interact with group membership. However, several measures did not differentiate groups. Age did not interact with group membership. However, several measures showed age-related declines in both groups. It is concluded that hyperactive children may remain chronically impaired in academic achievement, inattention, and behavioral disinhibition well into their late adolescent years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of a classroom observation code for hyperactive children.

Devised a classroom observation code that would identify hyperactive children reliably. A 14-category observation code was used to record the classroom behavior of 60 6–12 yr old children referred to an outpatient clinic for hyperactivity and 60 same-sex normal children. The overall mean phi coefficient for interval agreement was .76, indicating adequate interobserver reliability. Ss referred for hyperactivity had significantly higher scores than comparison Ss on 12 categories. There was greater within-S variability in the hyperactive group. Motor activity for both groups was significantly inversely related to age. The behavior frequencies during initial and later observations were not significantly different, indicating a lack of systematic observer effects on the S's behavior. However, there was overlap between the hyperactive and comparison Ss for all observation categories. Poor discrimination between the groups was therefore obtained with single-category criteria. Two-category criteria, especially the dyad interference and off task, substantially increased the code's discriminability, resulting in relatively few false positive and few false negative classifications. The code is felt to be a reliable and valid instrument for the objective quantification of classroom behavior in hyperactive children. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective assessment, self-concept, and the verbal learning styles of fifth-grade children.

To investigate the relationship between a child's self-concept (Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale) and learning of affectively assessed verbal material, 134 5th-grade children (72 female and 62 male) learned paired associate nouns which they had prerated for likability. As predicted, both high self-concept girls and boys learned more effectively those nouns which they had assessed as "liked." This effect was less for the middle self-concept girls. Low self-concept girls and middle and low self-concept boys appeared to learn their "disliked" nouns faster. The only effect of an external reinforcement procedure was a decrement in total performance. Results suggest that learning along an affective dimension of meaningfulness can be influenced by personality-related variables such as self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomy in children's learning: An experimental and individual difference investigation.

Ninety-one fifth-grade children participated in a study that assessed the effects of motivationally relevant conditions and individual differences on emotional experience and performance on a learning task. Two directed-learning conditions, one controlling and one noncontrolling, were contrasted with each other and with a third nondirected, spontaneous-learning context. Both directed sets resulted in greater rote learning compared with the nondirected-learning condition. However, both the nondirected and the noncontrolling directed-learning sets resulted in greater interest and conceptual learning compared with the controlling set, presumably because they were more conducive to autonomy or an internal perceived locus of causality. Furthermore, children in the controlling condition experienced more pressure and evidenced a greater deterioration in rote learning over an 8- (±1) day follow-up. Individual differences in children's autonomy for school-related activities as measured by the Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Connell & Ryan, 1985) also related to outcomes, with more self-determined styles predicting greater conceptual learning. Results are discussed in terms of the role of autonomy in learning and development and the issue of directed versus nondirected learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hyperactive and hypoxic children: Signal detection, sustained attention, and behavior.

Two parameters from signal detection theory—perceptual sensitivity and decision criterion cutoff scores—were used in the analysis of vigilance performance of 30 hyperactive (mean age 8.5 yrs), 30 hypoxic (mean age 9 yrs), and 47 normal (mean age 8.8 yrs) children. Signal detection analyses of 3 Continuous Performance Test conditions indicated that with increasing age, Ss obtained significantly more hits, fewer false alarms, higher perceptual sensitivity, and responded with greater caution. Overall deficits in signal discrimination (perceptual sensitivity level) were obtained for both the hyperactive and hypoxic Ss when compared to normal age-mates. Whereas the hypoxic Ss demonstrated additional decrements in sustaining attention (sensitivity decrement over time), the hyperactive Ss were impaired by low-response caution, reflecting difficulty inhibiting impulsive responses. Possible differences in hyperactive sample characteristics across studies and time-related recovery factors following hypoxia are discussed. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of anticipatory alerting signals and a compatible secondary task on vigilance performance.

This visual vigilance study simulated an industrial inspection task in which Ss were alerted to possible targets by a semiautomatic detection device. 1 experimental group was forewarned of possible targets by a buzzer with 1-sec foreperiod and rested between alerting signals. A 2nd experimental group worked on a problem-solving secondary task instead of resting between buzzes. A control group observed the display continuously. Other variables of interest were sex of O, target type, and size of display window. It was found that: (1) performance by alerted groups was far superior to that of controls and continued to improve throughout the task, (2) a vigilance decrement was not in evidence in any condition, (3) the problem-solving task did not interfere with detection performance, (4) male and female Ss performed equally well, and (5) Ss engaged in the problem-solving task greatly underestimated the duration of the detection task and reported it "interesting" while the other groups estimated duration accurately and indicated boredom. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Knowledge, strategy, and motivational contributions to preschool children's object recall.

This study examined the contributions of four individual difference predictors to preschool children's recall for object names. Measures of object knowledge (the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test [PPVT]), conceptual tempo (the Kansas Reflection-Impulsivity Scale for Preschoolers [KRISP] error scores), strategic study period activities, and teacher ratings of children's mastery motivation were used to predict recall scores of 3- and 4-year-old children. KRISP-error scores, strategic study activities, and motivation ratings were found to be significant correlates of recall. Motivation ratings entered a regression prediction equation first, followed by the strategic study activity measure, yielding a multiple correlation of .62. These predictors were unrelated, suggesting that motivational factors contributed to young children's recall proficiency directly, perhaps through greater task involvement and analysis and more effortful retrieval activity, and do not mediate strategic study behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of altering task components on perceptual-motor task learning.

In training operators of man-machine systems, how will altering the task influence learning progress at various stages in this sequence? After trying it out in a pilot study, the main experiment involved 108 male soldiers. "The apparatus consisted of an electronic compensatory tracking device which required S to maintain a target indicator in the center of a 5-in. oscilloscope… . Time on target was the primary measure of performance." A temporary decrement in performance was produced from altering task components later in learning. Greater effect followed from changes taking place earlier. 16 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sugar (sucrose) on children's behavior.

We examined the effects of sugar on the behavior of 45 preschool and elementary school children. Using a double-blind within-subject challenge design, we provided all children with a basic breakfast that included a challenge drink containing either 50 g of sucrose, a placebo (aspartame) of comparable sweetness, or only a very small amount of sucrose. The results indicated that high amounts of sugar caused a small increase in the children's activity level (as rated by their teachers) and a small decrement in the performance of the female subjects on a simple learning task and that sugar affected the cognitive performance of the preschoolers differently than that of elementary school children. All of these effects, however, were quite small in magnitude and were not considered clinically significant. The results did not support the view that sugar causes major changes in children's behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do hyperactive children have motor organization and/or execution deficits?

Hyperactive children have been described as motorically clumsy. To explore the validity of this assertion, an experiment using the additive factor method was designed to examine motor organization and execution in hyperactive children. Four groups of boys aged 7 to 8 years took part in the study: (1) a pure hyperactive (HA) group, N=20; (2) a pure conduct-disordered (CD) group, N=18; (3) a mixed hyperactive/conduct-disordered (HA+CD) group, N=12; (4) a normal (N) control group, N=22. While the small sample size precluded a definitive conclusion, the results indicated that neither HA nor CD children showed any motor organization or execution deficit in a simple sequential key-tapping task. Given previous findings indicating that hyperactive children show deficits in more complex motor coordination skills, the generalizability of our negative results needs to be examined on other more complex tasks.     

A new look at the effects of noise: A rejoinder.

Outlines a composite theory to account for the effects of noise upon performance. The 4 main determinants are (a) masking, both of acoustic cues and of inner speech; (b) distraction; (c) a beneficial increase in arousal when the noise begins, which gradually lessens and falls below normal to produce a decrement in performance when the noise stops; and (d) positive and negative transfer from noise to quiet. Positive transfer results from the more effective learning of the task in noise under the influence of the increase in arousal. Negative transfer results from the techniques of performance used in noise to counteract the masking or distraction, when they are not appropriate in quiet. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detection of linguistic ambiguity by reflective, impulsive, fast/accurate, and slow/inaccurate children.

Investigated the relation of conceptual tempo to children's detection of linguistic ambiguity. After completing the Matching Familiar Figures Test, 96 4th and 7th graders were classified as reflective, impulsive, fast/accurate, and slow/accurate and were asked to paraphrase the meaning of ambiguous sentences and then to indicate their meaning through a selection of pictures. Results indicate that reflective children were more successful than impulsive and slow/inaccurate children (a) in spontaneous paraphrasing of the multiple meanings of sentences and (b) in detecting the various ambiguities on the picture measure. In contast, on the paraphrase measure, prompting by the examiner to consider alternative meanings for the sentences eliminated differences among conceptual tempo groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit and Explicit Memory in Children With Congenital and Acquired Brain Disorder.

Implicit and explicit memory were examined in 8- to 15-year-old children with myelomeningocele and shunted hydrocephalus, severe traumatic brain injuries, or orthopedic injuries. Each group included between 22 and 29 children. Children completed a fragmented picture identification task to assess perceptual priming and a semantic decision-making task to assess conceptual priming. Each task also assessed procedural learning as well as explicit recall and recognition. All 3 groups showed significant perceptual and semantic priming of similar magnitude. In contrast, both brain-disordered groups displayed poorer explicit memory than did the comparison group. No group showed significant procedural learning on either task. Age and IQ were stronger predictors of explicit recall than of implicit memory. The findings indicate that implicit memory is relatively intact in many children with congenital and acquired brain disorders, despite deficits in explicit memory, and support the existence of separate memory systems in children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overselectivity, developmental level, and overtraining in autistic and normal children

Thirteen autistic children were compared to 13 normal children matched to them in mental age, on performance of a visual discrimination task. Form, color, and size were relevant and redundant cues. The groups did not differ significantly in mean trials to reach criterion or in breadth of learning, and both groups increased their breadth of learning after 50 trials of overtraining. Form was preferred to color and size by both autistic and normal children. Within each group, rank on mental age was highly correlated with rank in breadth of learning. Verbal and nonverbal autistic children did not differ in breadth of learning or in dimensional preference. Even nonverbal autistics equaled the performance of their normal controls. Our results suggest that overselective attention is better understood as part of a general developmental lag in cognition in autistic children than as a specific deficit underlying psychotic behavior.     

A comparison of egotism, negativity, and learned helplessness as explanations for poor performance after unsolvable problems.

After people work on unsolvable problems, they often perform poorly on a subsequent task. Egotism explains this decrement as the result of a strategy of low effort designed to blunt an attribution of poor ability should failure occur on the new task. The egotism explanation predicts that adding an element alleged to inhibit performance allows Ss to try without fear of an attribution of low ability. In contrast, learned helplessness predicts that adding an allegedly inhibitory element should lower the expectancy of control, making performance worse than usual. A 3rd explanation is "negativity." Like egotism, it predicts improved performance if an element said to inhibit performance is introduced, but for a different reason: to produce results opposite to the experimenter's suggestion. Unlike egotism, the negativity hypothesis predicts that adding an allegedly facilitating element will worsen performance. 50 college students were given either solvable or unsolvable concept formation problems and then worked on anagrams with or without music said to be distracting. In addition, there was a 5th condition in which Ss were given unsolvable problems followed by music said to facilitate performance. The performance decrement occurred only in the no-music condition, supporting the egotism explanation. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)