Local Connection Criteria and Single Homeless People's Geographical Mobility: Evidence from Brighton and Hove

In December 2001 Brighton and Hove City Council introduced a set of Local Connection Criteria aimed at stemming the flow of homeless people apparently making their way to the city in search of services. Under the new criteria, only those previously resident in Brighton and Hove can make use of the city's night shelters and hostels. Similar such criteria have recently been introduced elsewhere and represent an important change in local responses to the problems of single homelessness. The paper examines in detail the movements of 41 recently and long-term homeless men interviewed at a night shelter and hostel in Brighton and Hove prior to the introduction of the local connection rule. Finding the majority to have recently moved to the city having become homeless elsewhere, it is suggested that the introduction of such criteria is liable to have a considerable impact on the lives of some single homeless people. Examining the reasons why these men had moved, however, it is suggested that the future movement of single homeless people to the city, or other 'homeless places', is unlikely to be significantly affected by such policies.     

Living and health conditions of selected cities in India: Setting priorities for the National Urban Health Mission

The concept of “healthy city” promotes the physical, mental, social, and environmental well-being of people who live and work in urban areas. Fostering sustainably healthy cities is the prime objective of the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) in India. However, attaining this goal requires establishing priorities, key concerns, strategies and guidelines for action. This paper aims to assist policymakers by providing critical insights into the health and living conditions in selected major cities in India, with special emphasis on slums. This paper presents evidence that many of India’s major cities face significant deficits in the provision of basic amenities, including shelter, safe drinking water, improved sanitation and electricity. Demographic and health conditions in these cities lag far behind the goals set forth in national policies almost a decade ago. Despite the apparent proximity of city dwellers to urban health facilities, less than one third of the urbanites in India utilize government health facilities.     

HOMELESSNESS IN AMERICA

ABSTRACT: A second wave of books on homelessness in American has emerged since the crisis was first documented in the early 1980s. A dozen of these books are reviewed in this article. One conclusion of the review is that the urban dimensions of homelessness have yet to receive adequate treatment. An agenda for research on urban homelessness is offered, emphasizing the need to study the role of place in the lives of homeless people, the forces creating urban spatial reorganization, differences in social networks across homeless subpopulations, and the changing geographic organization of shelter and services targeted to the homeless.     

Testing a Typology of Homelessness Across Welfare Regimes: Shelter Use in Denmark and the USA

This article compares patterns of homeless shelter use in Denmark and the USA. Combining data from homeless shelters in Denmark with population registers, we find that the prevalence of shelter use is substantially lower in Denmark than in the USA. A cluster analysis of shelter stays identifies three types of users similar to findings from US research: the transitionally, episodically and chronically homeless. However, the transitionally homeless in Denmark have a higher tendency of suffering from mental illness and substance abuse than the transitionally homeless in the USA. The results support Stephens and Fitzpatrick' hypothesis that countries with more extensive welfare systems and lower levels of poverty have lower levels of homelessness, mainly amongst those with complex support needs, whereas in countries with less extensive welfare systems homelessness affects broader groups and is more widely associated with poverty and housing affordability problems.     

Civil Defense Shelters: a State-of-the-Art Assessment

This study reviews the literature on the design, construction, testing and cost of blast and fallout shelters. The researchers found that nuclear weapon effects and shelter design are well understood; however, cost is an important barrier to the construction of permanent shelters. Single-purpose blast shelters have costs ranging from U.S. $500 to 2500, or more, per occupant (or per space), depending on size, hardness, location, and whether the shelter is part of new construction or retrofit. Multiplied by a risk area population of approximately 160 million, the cost of a blast shelter construction program would rival that of a major strategic weapon system. Options in the mid-range of expense, i.e. a few tens to a few hundreds of U.S. dollars per space, include: (1) requiring modification of limestone mining practices, where appropriate, to generate usable shelter space near cities; (2) encouraging the construction of earth-sheltered housing and other buildings; and (3) requiring and/or subsidizing the construction of dual-use basement shelter in new construction. A program using this approach would require an annual expenditure equal to approximately 1% of the annual defense budget for 10 or more years. The very low-cost (and less effective) options open to the U.S. government, with its current civil defense budget, remain as follows: (1) maintain the inventory of fallout shelters and identify space with some blast protection potential; (2) plan for “crisis upgrading” to improve existing space in a crisis; and (3) plan for construction of expedient shelters in a crisis. The crisis-implemented options require several days' warning in order to be effective. While much of the technology for protecting people against nuclear weapons effects originated in the U.S., we have not solved the political problem of allocating the resources to protect our own population.     

The National Disability Insurance Scheme in an Urban Context: Opportunities and Challenges for Australian Cities

The NDIS will directly affect the lives of close to half a million people with a disability as well as significantly wider impacts on Australian cities. This review paper examines the urban policy and practice context for the NDIS, focusing specifically on housing, employment, governance, mainstream services (particularly health and education) and multiculturalism. Although the current Australian urban condition is hardly ideal for the implementation of such an ambitious scheme, the funding provided by the NDIS, coupled with appropriate adjustments to mainstream urban policy, can make important contributions to the social, cultural and economic thriving of Australian cities.     

Identifying the Patterns of Emergency Shelter Stays of Single Individuals in Canadian Cities of Different Sizes

The study analyzed the patterns of emergency shelter stays of single persons in three Canadian cities of different sizes (i.e., Toronto, Ottawa, and Guelph). Similar to findings of previous research conducted in large American cities in the early 1990s, cluster analyses defined three clusters with distinct patterns of shelter stays (temporary, episodic, and long stay). A temporary cluster (88–94 per cent) experienced a small number of homeless episodes for relatively short periods of time. An episodic cluster (3–11 per cent) experienced multiple homeless episodes also for short periods of time. A long-stay cluster (2–4 per cent) had a relatively small number of homeless episodes but for long periods of time. Despite their relatively small size, the episodic and long-stay clusters used a disproportionately large number of total shelter beds. The study extends findings from previous American research to a Canadian context and to small- and medium-size cities. Implications of the findings for program and policy development are discussed.     

Activity spaces of homeless men and women measured by GPS tracking data: A comparative analysis of Prague and Pilsen

The aim of this article is to investigate the factors that influence the size of activity spaces of homeless men and women in cities. Vulnerable population groups such as the homeless face the risk of mobility challenges that can exacerbate their social exclusion even more through mobility-driven spatial exclusion. The extent of an individual's activity space is a key precondition for the daily coping strategies and life opportunities of homeless people. This study is the first to combine GPS tracking of homeless people based on a week-long GPS measurement with mobility interviews. The article tests five hypotheses as to the influence of city size, age, gender, housing situation and education on the size of activity space. Data obtained for a large city (Prague) and for a small city (Pilsen) are analysed using three geospatial measurements of activity spaces. In line with mixed-method approaches, the results are further triangulated through mobility interviews. By mapping the objective activity spaces, we were able to evaluate the role of individual and contextual factors in shaping homeless life and discuss the theoretical and practical implications of activity space measurement for social policy and urban planning.     

‘The planned city sweeps the poor away…’: Urban planning and 21st century urbanisation

In recent years, attention has been drawn to the fact that now more than half of the world's population is urbanised, and the bulk of these urban dwellers are living in the global South. Many of these Southern towns and cities are dealing with crises which are compounded by rapid population growth, particularly in peri-urban areas; lack of access to shelter, infrastructure and services by predominantly poor populations; weak local governments and serious environmental issues. There is also a realisation that newer issues of climate change, resource and energy depletion, food insecurity and the current financial crisis will exacerbate present difficult conditions. As ideas that either ‘the market’ or ‘communities’ could solve these urban issues appear increasingly unrealistic, there have been suggestions for a stronger role for governments through reformed instruments of urban planning. However, agencies (such as UN-Habitat) promoting this make the point that in many parts of the world current urban planning systems are actually part of the problem: they serve to promote social and spatial exclusion, are anti-poor, and are doing little to secure environmental sustainability. Urban planning, it is argued, therefore needs fundamental review if it is to play any meaningful role in current urban issues.     

城市应急避难场所规划研究——以深圳市龙岗区为例

城市应急避难场所规划应从宏观层次划分防灾分区,从中观层次划分防灾单元,在微观层次确定避难场所的结构功能;应遵循一场所用,就近布置的原则;根据避难场所等级(市级、区级、街道级和社区级)确定服务半径;场所选择应考虑安全性、基础设施、疏散通道、标识系统等因素.     

Publications Received

Problem: At present, homelessness in the United States is primarily addressed by providing emergency and transitional shelter facilities. These programs do not directly address the causes of homelessness, and residents are exposed to victimization and trauma during stays. We need an alternative that is more humane, as well as more cost-efficient and effective at achieving outcomes.

Purpose: This article uses research on homelessness to devise alternative forms of emergency assistance that could reduce the prevalence and/or duration of episodes of homelessness and much of the need for emergency shelter.

Methods: We review analyses of shelter utilization patterns to identify subgroups of homeless single adults and families with minor children, and propose alternative program models aimed at the particular situations of each of these subgroups.

Results and conclusions: We argue that it would be both more efficient and more humane to reallocate resources currently devoted to shelters. We propose the development of community-based programs that instead would focus on helping those with housing emergencies to remain housed or to quickly return to housing, and be served by mainstream social welfare programs. We advocate providing shelter on a limited basis and reserving transitional housing for individuals recently discharged from institutions. Chronic homelessness should be addressed by permanent supportive housing.

Takeaway for practice: Changing existing shelter-based responses to homeessness could produce better outcomes for homeless individuals and families.

Research support: None.     

Infostructures: Towards a Complementary Approach for Solving Urban Challenges through Digital Technologies

Abstract

Population growth in cities has led to unprecedented pressure on urban infrastructure services, such as electricity supply and public transport. As a consequence cities need to find sustainable solutions to maintain the availability of services while keeping them economically and environmentally viable. One traditional approach is to expand infrastructure, but this can be expensive, take years from planning to realization, and be politically frought. In this paper we discuss the concept of “infostructures” as cost and time-effective complementary approaches that leverage digital layers and urban digital media channels of the cityscape. Through four case studies and their analysis we illustrate opportunities for addressing different types of “unhealthy” situations with digital technologies.     

User satisfaction in large-scale,urban dry sanitationprograms in Mexico

Dry sanitation (DS) may be part of the solution to water scarcity, water quality deterioration and lack of resources to provide or maintain waterborne sewage systems. However, the worldwide paucity of large-scale, urban case studies makes assessment of DS as a potential urban water management strategy difficult. Urban DS viability depends in part on urban users' satisfaction with dry toilets (DTs) and whether they would accept them as long-term sanitation options. We analyze user acceptance and satisfaction with DS in five Mexican cities. When toilets functioned well (four out of five sites), users were highly satisfied. Similar levels of satisfaction were found under conditions of different DT models, types of DS program and income-level of the population. User motivation, choice and adequate support services were positively associated with satisfaction. Incentives such as indoor, aesthetic DTs, maintenance and end-product collection services, as well as higher water supply pricing, would encourage people to accept DS as a long-term option. We discuss reasons for dissatisfaction at one of the study sites.     

Air infiltration in Catalan dwellings and sealed rooms: An experimental study

In this study, we performed a series of trials to measure the infiltration air exchange rate (ACH) of several single-family dwellings throughout Catalonia, as well as the ACH of sealed rooms that could be used as indoor shelters. A shelter is an indoor room where people can take protection in case of a toxic gas release, while the toxic cloud passes through the dwelling. Experimental measurements were made using the tracer gas decay technique with CO₂ as the tracer gas in 2 periods—summer and winter—with the aim of characterizing air infiltration in Catalan dwellings. The geometric means obtained for the ACH of shelters and dwellings were 0.16 and 0.23 h⁻¹, respectively, that is, lower than those reported for North American (0.56 h⁻¹) and Greek (0.76 h⁻¹) dwellings. In general, the ACH was lower for shelters than for dwellings, and the average reduction obtained in shelters with respect to dwellings was 35%. The largest reductions were obtained in old dwellings with small floor areas and few stories. As for meteorological conditions, we found that the ACH of dwellings was more closely linked to wind speed than indoor–outdoor temperature difference, while the ACH of shelters was more affected by indoor–outdoor temperature and temperature differences inside the dwelling, particularly in dwellings with 3 or more stories.     

Emergency homeless shelter use in the Dublin region 2012–2016: Utilizing a cluster analysis of administrative data

Arising out of a decade of economic recession and austerity, Ireland is currently in the grip of a severe housing crisis marked by weak housing supply, rapidly rising house prices and rents and a dramatic increase in homelessness that is placing severe pressure on the State's emergency accommodation system. This article utilises data from a national homelessness services database (PASS system), which captures live information on service user interactions for all state funded NGO and local authority homeless services, to examine the patterns of emergency accommodation use by the homeless population in Dublin City. The paper applies a k-means cluster analysis to determine different subgroups of Dublin's homeless population (n = 12,734) and analyses their rate of movement through homeless services between the years 2012 and 2016. A temporary cluster (78%) experienced a small number of homeless episodes for relatively short periods of time, while an episodic cluster (10%) experienced multiple homeless episodes also for a short period of time. The chronic cluster (12%) experienced a small number of homeless episodes but with long stays in emergency shelter. Results for Ireland show patterns similar to those reported in the US, Canada and Denmark, where a small number of chronic users of homeless accommodation account for a disproportionately large share of resources (i.e. 50% of total bed nights). The findings have implications for the operation of emergency homeless accommodation in Ireland and, in particular, the targeting of interventions and the re-directing of resources away from emergency accommodation responses towards a more effective emergency accommodation system for all stakeholders.     

On the utility of shelters in wildfire evacuations

The combined challenges of a high fire risk and poor vehicle access in mountainous regions have led planners and emergency management authorities to consider non-traditional alternatives to complete evacuation of a region under threat. Community fire shelters have been put forward as one such alternative; however, their benefits remain contested. In this paper a series of experiments are designed in the Dandenong Ranges in Australia and presented to elucidate the relationship between shelters and community safety in wildfire scenarios. Our approach utilises a multi-stage simulation workflow to evaluate the outcome of 64 shelter configurations subject to three different fires. When compared to a scenario without shelters, some shelter configurations result in up to 10% reduction in the median exposure count, while some other configurations increase it. It is found that the efficacy of shelters strongly depends on the relative location to the ignition point and the trend of fire progression. The most effective shelters are identified for the specific fires that we simulate. The results demonstrate that sophisticated modelling and simulation is necessary for decision makers to determine a beneficial shelter placement strategy that remains effective across a number of likely wildfire spread scenarios.     

Creating an African Riviera: Revisiting the Impact of the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront Development in Cape Town

The use of leisure and tourism to re-image and redevelop cities has been interpreted as a mechanism for attracting capital and people. In a period of intense inter-place competition and urban entrepreneurialism, whole built environments become centerpieces of urban spectacle and display. Waterfront developments have become emblematic in this regard. Over the past two decades the redevelopment of the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront (V&AW) in Cape Town has been transformed from ‘port’ to ‘playground’ and is internationally acknowledged as one of the most successful of these developments. This redevelopment has, as has been the case with numerous other waterfront developments, not been uncontroversial. New tensions and conflicts have arisen over the use, meaning, and ownership of this space. The acquisition of the waterfront by a consortium of London- and Dubai-based property developers in 2006 has renewed concerns about the ‘plasticization’ of the waterfront and signals the symbolic start of a new phase in this waterfront’s development trajectory. The paper tracks the development of the V&AW since its inception in the late 1980s and argues that general critiques of waterfront developments sit uneasily in the Cape Town context. It is also suggested that these developments can fulfil a very significant and positive role for developing world cities.     

Assessing the thermal performance of an emergency shelter system

The aims of these tests are to improve conditions inside temporary shelters and to develop tools to assess shelter quality and comfort. Two different prototype shelters were tested in cold conditions with an internal vapour load. Temperature and humidity measurements were taken inside the shelter while the external temperature was maintained at −20 °C. Visual assessments were also carried out during and after testing.In the artificial test environment, both shelters experienced an undesirable variation of air temperature with height, averaging 17 °C between the lower and middle height zones. Models of each shelter were constructed using the Environmental Systems Performance—research (ESP-r) simulation software and were calibrated with the test data. The shelter models were simulated in three different climates using real data from Islamabad, London and Pristina.The feasibility of heating the tent using only the casual gains from occupants and solar radiation was investigated, although it was found that a tent heated in this way would only be appropriate in some locations. Design issues included coping with stratification of air temperature inside the tent, improving light levels without compromising thermal performance and fabricating the materials cheaply and simply.The validity of the results is limited by the lack of measured data for rates of air infiltration.     

Investigating the influential post-disaster factors in determining the optimal location of shelters: A case study,Sarpol-e Zahab,Kermanshah province,Iran

A proper location is one of the most influential factors in shelter performance. Although considerable research focuses on finding a suitable site for temporary shelters, only a few address the effect of post-disaster circumstances on discovering the optimal location. This study primarily aims to investigate the influential factors in determining a suitable place for temporary shelters after a crisis. Therefore, an algorithm is proposed. This algorithm is achieved by analyzing and computing the post-crisis urban route and facility accessibility based on photogrammetric photographs taken by an unmanned aerial vehicle/satellite.     

Analysing experiences and issues in self-built shelters in Bangladesh using transdisciplinary approach

There are currently 70.8 million forcibly displaced people, globally. Bangladesh hosts the largest refugee camp in the world. Much effort has gone into the research, design and delivery of mass-produced shelters. Yet most refugees live in self-built shelters using simple shelter materials. This paper aims to demonstrate the benefits of using a transdisciplinary approach for holistic data collection in such shelters. A total of 1594 households were surveyed in refugee camps in Bangladesh using diverse methods—e.g. surveys, semi-structured interviews, physical measurements. It was only because of the use of various methods that the reasons behind identified issues were discovered or quantified. For example, household surveys uncovered the issue of poor ventilation, but only the semi-structured interviews exposed the reasons behind it, while physical measurements assessed the implications of this—annual particulate exposure 13 times the recommended limit. Furthermore, several methods pointed to issues with materials, but only the focus groups discussions exposed the need for gender-sensitive technical training tailored for women on the correct use of the materials. This study demonstrates that a diverse team (humanitarian staff, building physicists, and anthropologists) using several approaches to data-gathering and working in a transdisciplinary manner has much to offer the sector, and by including quantitative physical measurements allows costed improvement plans to be developed, targets to be set and general, rather than case specific, knowledge to be generated. The findings of this study have resulted in new shelter interventions by the aid sector that were rolled out in over 70,000 shelters.