From Marrakech through The Hague to Kyoto: Has the Global Debate on Water Reached a Dead End?

Abstract

Although the first World Water Forum was held in 1997, realization by the world community of the vast array of problems facing the water sector dates back to the seventies. Indeed, the Mar del Plata Water Conference that was held in 1977 can be considered the first world water forum. Since that time, a series of international conferences, including the three world water forums that were held in Marrakech, The Hague, and Kyoto, have been organized to discuss the existing and emerging water problems. Such conferences and forums have debated the major issues regarding management and development of water resources, and have adopted a number of resolutions, declarations, and action plans. The debate on many of those issues has sharpened in recent years and the resolutions, declarations, and action plans have multiplied. This article discusses the basic elements of the debate and the areas of differences between the various groups, and assesses the efficacy and impact of the resolutions, declarations, and action plans adopted at those conferences.

This is the first of a two-part article, the second of which will be published in the next issue of this Journal.     

Real and Ideal Institutional Frameworks for Managing the Common Arab-Israeli Water Resources

The Oslo A and B agreements of September 1993 and September 1995 were the beginning of a process aimed at a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict. The Israeli-Jordanian Treaty of 1994 addresses issues of water sharing between the two parties. In 1995, Israel and the Palestinians signed an Agreement on Water and Sewage as part of their Interim Agreement. In February 1996, Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinians agreed to a “Declaration of Principles for Joint Development of Water Resources.” The purpose of this paper is to compare the components of the two Agreements with an “ideal” institution for management of shared water resources. The “ideal” institution was formulated by 23 water experts who were interviewed on this issue. The main finding is that in most respects, expert opinions did not differ significantly from the Israeli-Jordanian Treaty of Peace and the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement.     

United Nations General Assembly Resolution: International Decade for Action,Water for Life, 2005–2015

Abstract

Of the voluminous resolutions issued by United Nations General Assembly, the Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000, is one of the most significant. It specifies eight development goals and sets the year 2015 as the target date for achieving such goals. Although water is not explicitly mentioned as one of those eight principal goals, it is specified as a subset under one of those goals. Three years later, the United Nations General Assembly paid special attention to water by issuing a separate resolution declaring the period 2005 to 2015 as the “International Decade for Action, Water for Life.” This article reviews and discusses the Resolution and analyzes its added value.     

Water resources research to support a sustainable China

Abstract

Water resources are the basis for the sustainable development of China. However, the country is currently facing alarming water-related problems associated with its fast economic development and climate change. This editorial introduces briefly the status of its water resources research at the national level and the researcher level. It also introduces the research reported in this thematic issue to highlight its role in addressing flood and water-scarcity issues, improving water management in inland plains and supporting the sustainable development of the country. Finally, some further recommendations for improving water resources research in China are offered.     

Desiccation of the Yellow River and the South Water Northward Transfer Project

Abstract

Desiccation of the Yellow River, the cradle of the Chinese civilization and the second longest river in China since the 1970s, has created serious socioeconomic, environmental, and ecological problems. This paper analyzes the water shortage problem in the Yellow River and evaluates the effects of demand management and the interbasin transfer—South Water Northward Transfer Project—in alleviating the problem. Although China has initiated a series of demand management and pollution control initiatives, these programs alone cannot solve the chronic water shortage problem in the Yellow River Basin. While facing multiple challenges and controversies, implementation of the South Water Northward Transfer Project is necessary to mitigate the water shortage crisis in the Basin. However, the implementation of the Transfer Project is only a partial solution to the Yellow River's chronic water shortage problem. China should actively implement and enforce its demand management programs and pollution control policies to make sustainable use of its limited fresh water resources.     

Mapping water poverty in Africa using the improved Multidimensional Index of Water Poverty

This article details the application of the improved Multidimensional Index of Water Poverty, which associates human economic welfare with physical water availability to point out the degree to which water scarcity impacts African populations. The index and its components vary widely across the African continent, suggesting the need for location-specific policy interventions. These findings highlight more specifically a significant disparity in water poverty between more developed but water-scarce countries, located mainly in northern and southern Africa, and water-rich but lower-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Role of economic instruments in water allocation reform: lessons from Europe

A growing number of countries are reforming their water allocation regimes through the use of economic instruments. This article analyzes the performance of economic instruments in water allocation reforms compared against their original design objectives in five European countries: England, France, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands. We identify the strengths of, barriers to and unintended consequences of economic instruments in the varying socio-economic, legal, institutional and biophysical context in each case study area, and use this evidence to draw out underlying common guidelines and recommendations. These lessons will help improve the effectiveness of future reforms while supporting more efficient water resources allocation.     

WEAP21—A Demand-, Priority-, and Preference-Driven Water Planning Model

Abstract

The Water Evaluation and Planning Version 21 (WEAP21) Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) model seamlessly integrates water supplies generated through watershed-scale hydrologic processes with a water management model driven by water demands and environmental requirements and is governed by the natural watershed and physical network of reservoirs, canals, and diversions. This version (WEAP21) extends the previous WEAP model by introducing the concept of demand priorities and supply preferences, which are used in a linear programming heuristic to solve the water allocation problem as an alternative to multi-criteria weighting or rule-based logic approaches. WEAP21 introduces a transparent set of model objects and procedures that can be used to analyze a full range of issues faced by water planners through a scenario-based approach. These issues include climate variability and change, watershed condition, anticipated demands, ecosystem needs, the regulatory environment, operational objectives, and available infrastructure.     

The EU Water Initiative at 15: origins,processes and assessment

This article examines the activities and achievements of the European Union Water Initiative, a transnational, multi-actor partnership established in 2002 by the European Commission to support water governance reforms around the world. Two regional components of the initiative – (a) Africa and (b) Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia – are studied with a focus on their organizational structures, activities, policies and achievements. The analysis provides evidence for improved regional dialogue and cooperation in the water sector, but also points to persistent weaknesses, in particular a lack of resources, ownership and mutual understanding as to the overall aims of the Initiative.     

Environmental flow assessment as a tool for achieving environmental objectives of African water policy,with examples from East Africa

Africa has set ambitious targets for development of water resources over the coming decades. Africa Water Vision 2025 calls for a doubling of irrigated agriculture and a five-fold increase in water use for agriculture, industry, and hydropower. The ambitious development targets are framed in the context of integrated water resources management, which also seeks to simultaneously allocate sufficient water for environmental sustainability. Over the past two decades scientists have devised a number of practical and robust approaches to determine environmental water requirements in rivers and wetlands based on the objectives set in water planning. We review the most widely applied approaches to assess environmental flow requirements and consider their application in Africa through case studies in the transboundary Mara River basin of Kenya and Tanzania and the Great Ruaha River basin in Tanzania.     

国际河流中下游沿岸国对上游沿岸国的影响

人们普遍认为只有河流上游沿岸国通过水量控制或水质污染给下游沿岸国带来损害,而没有认识到下游沿岸国凭借对水资源已有使用权和水权的要求,将剥夺上游国家未来对水资源的使用权。法院判决、信函交流、学术讨论和国际河流开发利用的实践等表明,人们已认识到剥夺未来使用权的概念并对之理解越来越清晰。讨论了赫尔辛基规则和国际水道条约中上下游沿岸国之间的关系,认为公平合理利用原则已成为水道公约和国际水法的基础性导则,河流各沿岸国应相互尊重,一国的河流开发举措不应对其他国家造成利益损害。结合Baardhere工程、盖巴斯科夫-拉基玛洛工程两个典型的国际水事纠纷事件,分析了剥夺未来使用权的概念和公平合理利用原则在实践中遇到的挑战。     

海河流域水资源规划工作思路及初步成果

海河流域水资源短缺,影响着整个流域社会经济的发展。为了更好地研究海河流域水资源的可持续利用,海河水利委员会组织的海河流域水资源规划工作已全面展开。目前,对流域的水资源量、水质状况、供用水现状等进行了调查分析,并取得了初步的成果。     

Regulation of International Watercourses under the UN/ECE Regional Agreements

Abstract

This article deals with the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) regional agreements, and their use as implementing instruments for protecting and managing international water courses. The background and issues of the regional instruments developed by the UN Economic Commission for Europe are addressed. The contents of the 1992 Helsinki Convention and its implementation are described, as well as the recent development of the Protocol on Water and Health. The relationship to the 1991 Espoo Convention and a comparison with the 1997 UN Convention on the Law of International Watercourses are also included. The potential of the UN/ECE conventions as tools to promote conflict prevention and dispute settlement is discussed. Lessons and conclusions are drawn from the experience on the management of transboundary waters in Europe.     

用可持续发展思想 研究解决北方缺水问题

北方水资源短缺问题，引起了全社会的广泛关注。为贯彻落实江泽民总书记关于南水北调工作的指示精神，水利部决定先开展北方地区水资源总体规划工作，可用持续发展的思想研究解决北方缺水问题，为南水北调工程的论证奠定基础，目前，第一阶段的工作进展顺利，各单位承担的专题研究已取得一些初步成果。     

南水北调石家庄受水区地下水压采方案探讨

南水北调中线石家庄受水区水资源匮乏严重，由于连年超采地下水已引发了严重的环境地质问题。现对南水北调中线石家庄受水区地下水压采方案进行探讨，通过工程措施、管理措施和相关法规、办法的制定，开源与节流并举，使该区域水资源能够支撑区域社会、经济、环境的可持续发展。     

Water Scarcity Impacts and Potential Conflicts in the MENA Region

Abstract

The failure of water resources to meet the basic requirements of society has a host of social, economic, environmental, and political impacts. This paper addresses those impacts with particular reference to the region of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Water scarcity is a manmade phenomenon brought about by the increasing demands of the population for water. The imbalance in the population-water resources equation strains society and has an adverse impact on domestic hygiene, public health, and cost of domestic water, and could impart political problems as serious as bringing down governments. On the social side, water scarcity adversely impacts job opportunities, farm incomes, credibility and reliability of agricultural exports, and the ability of the vulnerable to meet the cost of domestic water. Economically, the adverse impact is displayed in the loss of production of goods, especially agricultural goods, the loss of working hours because of the hardships society faces as a result of water scarcity. The impacts of water scarcity on regional stability are addressed with reference to water in the Middle East Peace Process. Finally, the serious impacts of conflicts and potential water wars are discussed. Water, energy, and environment are triplets. The eventual solution to water scarcity lies in the invention of an energy generating technology that renders the cost of power affordable by societies and that does not impart serious environmental problems.     

Integrated Assessment of Water Resources Potential in the North China Region

Abstract

Potential assessment of water resources development (PAWRD) is very important for regional water management, water allocation, water transfer, and economic planning, especially for today's China, which is under a rapid economic growth, a continued expansion of population, and an increasingly deteriorating eco-environment. In this work, the southern part of Hathe River (SPHR) is selected as the representative area of the North China Region for a case study based on considerations such as available data, geographic characteristics, administrative boundaries, and the state of water shortage. A growth pattern of regional water resources development is presented. A fuzzy assessment model is established and applied to determine the growth stage, an indicator for water resources development potential. Seven assessment factors, selected based on the conditions of supply, demand, and use efficiency of water subjected to the regional physical, social, and economic settings, include irrigation rate of arable land, exploitation rate of water resources, the water-saving level, a water supply and demand modulus, the water supply per capita, and the ratio of eco-environmental water use. These factors are integrated into the fuzzy assessment model, which is shown to be capable and effective for potential assessment. The assessment results demonstrate the potential of water resources development is little in SPHR and are substantiated by the necessity of the middle route of the South-North Water Transfer (SNWT) in the long run. It is also suggested at present that promoting water saving and strengthening water demand controls would be the most feasible and effective solution to mitigate water shortage stress of SPHR before the SNWT scheme is implemented. PAWRD provides a scientific tool for water-demand management and water-saving improvement, as well as a necessary basis for decision-making for economy planning and water transfer design.     

Proposing a solution to India’s water crisis: ‘paradigm shift’ or pushing outdated concepts?

Abstract

This article is a critique of the report of the committee chaired by Dr Mihir Shah on restructuring the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board of India. It shows that the recommendations of the committee are not based on any sound understanding of the federal nature of water administration in India, water-sector performance or the problems confronting it. The ‘paradigm shift’ in the suggested approach to water management is based on flawed analysis of the performance of surface irrigation systems and outdated concepts of irrigation efficiency, and reflects the professional bias of its members against large water infrastructure and wishful thinking about what schemes like aquifer mapping can achieve.     

Water Resources Development and Management A Challenging Task for Botswana

Abstract

Since Botswana is part of drought prone region of Southern Africa due to its semi-arid climate, conservation and careful management of the water resources is a matter of necessity and great importance. Hence, the focus on water resources management and, in particular, integrated management has become critical over the past decade. This paper addresses the problem of water resources development with a particular reference to Botswana, which is a semi-desert region. The vagaries of climate, unpredictable, patchy rainfall, and even more erratic run-off events all make hydrological modeling difficult. High rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration losses present an additional challenge to water resources planners. Lack of good dam sites is another problem in Botswana's ancient, flat, and eroded landscape. This paper describes the present and future water demands of this country and a suggestion is made to improve the situation of water shortage. The Botswana National Master Plan has been developed to meet the challenge. The aim is to integrate the expanding water supply system of eastern Botswana, through a north-south carrier pipeline. A brief presentation and discussion of this system is given along with other challenges faced by the water resources planners, such as conjunctive use of the groundwater and surface water resources