基于超级电容器的发动机起动蓄电池改进研究

一种基于超级电容+蓄电池设计,将2块12 V/200 Ah铅酸电池与超级电容模组组成为24 V发动机起动模块,在减小原铅酸电池容量50%的情况下,发动机起动模块的大电流输出能力优于4块12 V/200 Ah铅酸电池的组合。该设计保证了起动模块的高能量密度和高功率密度等优点。降低了起动电流对蓄电池的影响,延长了蓄电池的使用寿命。     

Estimation of the state-of-charge of gel lead-acid batteries and application to the control of a stand-alone wind-solar test-bed with hydrogen support

In hybrid renewable energy systems, batteries act as a DC bus to provide constant voltage and to smooth out commutations between the generating devices. These batteries are usually of a lead-acid type and operate under harsh variable conditions due to fluctuations of both solar radiation and wind speed. Precise knowledge of the state-of-charge of the batteries, and hence of their available energy, play a key role in effecting efficient control and energy management of the installation. The present study had a twofold aim. One objective was to adjust and validate a method based on coulomb counting to estimate the state-of-charge (SOC) of a gelled lead-acid battery which is the DC bus of a hybrid wind-solar system with hydrogen storage. Other works evaluate SOC models based on several parameters, however, the present proposal based on experimental measurements involves only a few parameters. The second objective was to modify the installation's control algorithm to use the battery's calculated SOC as control parameter instead of its voltage. The results of a test-bed system, showing how the system evolved under real operating conditions, constitute a proof-of-concept of the validity of the method.     

The use of activated carbon and graphite for the development of lead-acid batteries for hybrid vehicle applications

Future vehicle applications require the development of reliable and long life batteries operating under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) working conditions. This paper updates work carried out to develop spiral wound valve-regulated batteries for vehicles with different hybridisation degrees, ranging from stop-start to mild hybrid applications.In order to develop a battery that can withstand the hard operating conditions that the work at High Rate Partial-State-of-Charge (HRPSoC) implies, it is necessary to modify the negative AM formulation by using special, additives like carbon and graphite that reduce lead sulphate accumulation during HRPSoC cycling within in the negative plate. Several batches of negative active material (NAM) with the addition of graphites of different types, as well as combinations of graphite and activated carbons, have been made on 6 V 24 Ah Spiral wound modules. Electrical results show a dramatic increase of the charge acceptance at different SoC's that for some combinations approach 200%. On the other hand, on cycle life according to EUCAR Power Assist cycling, values in the range 200,000-220,000 cycles have been obtain in most part of the batch. This represents a capacity turnover of 5000-5500 times the nominal capacity.The paper is divided into three parts. The first part is devoted to identify the cause of failure of the negative plate on Power Assist Cycle Life, that turned to be the development of high amounts of lead sulphate and its accumulation on the surface of the plate. The second part covers the addition of carbon and graphite of low SSA to NAM and finally the third part is dedicated to the test of additions of medium/high SSA carbon to NAM with the specific objective of trying to implement the supercapacitor effect inside the battery.     

New developments on valve-regulated lead–acid batteries for advanced automotive electrical systems

The development of novel electrical systems for low emission vehicles demands batteries with specific cycling performance, especially under partial state of charge (PSOC) conditions. Moreover, according to the powertrain design, battery high power capability is demanded or this function can be assumed by a supercapacitor or a flywheel. This paper deals with the development of AGM and gel valve-regulated lead–acid batteries for advanced automotive applications.AGM VRLA battery development was based on previous work for short autonomy high power UPS applications and on active material formulations with specific additives to improve battery life under high rate partial state of charge cycling conditions. The 18 Ah batteries showed excellent high rate capability (9 kW 10 s discharge peaks and 4 kW 5 s regenerative charge acceptance at 60% state of charge) and 110,000 power assist microcycles at 60% SOC and 2.5% DOD were fulfilled.Moreover, as preliminary work in the development of a cost-effective and reliable gel battery to be used in combination of a supercapacitor in a 42 V mild-hybrid powertrain, VRLA batteries with conventional gel formulations have been tested according to novel automotive cycling profiles, mainly moderate cycling under partial state of charge conditions and simulating load management in a stop and start working profile.     

Improving photovoltaic system sizing by using electrolyte circulation in the lead-acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries are, between all types of batteries, the most used today as storage systems for photovoltaic applications. The sizing of the lead-acid batteries is based on some external parameters, solar irradiation and load consumption, and some battery characteristics, charge capacity and efficiency, depth of discharge, operating voltage, and ageing effects. The improvement of any of these parameters will result in an improvement of the sizing of the lead-acid battery and, consequently, of the sizing of the photovoltaic array. We have studied in this paper the influence of the improved capacity of lead-acid batteries with electrolyte circulation onto the sizing of the lead-acid battery and the PV array. The experimental results have shown that the lead-acid battery capacity can be improved as much as 20% if electrolyte circulation is used. The improvement results in a reduction of up to 30% in the size of the battery if combined with the improvement in the reduction of the battery capacity due to annual cycling and ageing, another beneficial effect of the electrolyte circulation. The reduction of size is extended to the PV array which is affected not only by the above mentioned effects, but also by the higher charge efficiency of the electrolyte circulation battery. The reduction in sizing the PV array can be as much as 41% for the most exigent operating conditions, deep depth of discharge and high discharge rate. The use of an electrolyte circulation system is especially useful in lead-acid batteries for PV systems which must operate at very deep cycling and require a minimum size of the battery block.     

Further demonstration of the VRLA-type UltraBattery under medium-HEV duty and development of the flooded-type UltraBattery for micro-HEV applications

The UltraBattery has been invented by the CSIRO Energy Technology in Australia and has been developed and produced by the Furukawa Battery Co., Ltd., Japan. This battery is a hybrid energy storage device which combines a super capacitor and a lead-acid battery in single unit cells, taking the best from both technologies without the need of extra, expensive electronic controls. The capacitor enhances the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer during high-rate discharging and charging, thus enabling it to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking.The laboratory results of the prototype valve-regulated UltraBatteries show that the capacity, power, available energy, cold cranking and self-discharge of these batteries have met, or exceeded, all the respective performance targets set for both minimum and maximum power-assist HEVs. The cycling performance of the UltraBatteries under micro-, mild- and full-HEV duties is at least four times longer than that of the state-of-the-art lead-acid batteries. Importantly, the cycling performance of UltraBatteries is proven to be comparable or even better than that of the Ni-MH cells. On the other hand, the field trial of UltraBatteries in the Honda Insight HEV shows that the vehicle has surpassed 170,000 km and the batteries are still in a healthy condition. Furthermore, the UltraBatteries demonstrate very good acceptance of the charge from regenerative braking even at high state-of-charge, e.g., 70% during driving. Therefore, no equalization charge is required for the UltraBatteries during field trial. The HEV powered by UltraBatteries gives slightly higher fuel consumption (cf., 4.16 with 4.05 L/100 km) and CO₂ emissions (cf., 98.8 with 96 g km⁻¹) compared with that by Ni-MH cells. There are no differences in driving experience between the Honda Insight powered by UltraBatteries and by Ni-MH cells. Given such comparable performance, the UltraBattery pack costs considerably less – only 20–40% of that of the Ni-MH pack by one estimate. In parallel with the field trial, a similar 144-V valve-regulated UltraBattery pack was also evaluated under simulated medium-HEV duty in our laboratories.In this study, the laboratory performance of the 144-V valve-regulated UltraBattery pack under simulated medium-HEV duty and that of the recently developed flooded-type UltraBattery under micro-HEV duty will be discussed. The flooded-type UltraBattery is expected to be favorable to the micro-HEVs because of reduced cost compared with the equivalent valve-regulated counterpart.     

Non-intrusive measurement of the state-of-charge of lead-acid batteries using wire-wound coils

Non-intrusive monitoring of the state-of-charge (SOC) of lead-acid batteries by the use of wire wound coils is described. Coils were attached to the outside case of the battery, adjacent to the negative end plate, and excited using ac current of frequency in the range of 1–40 kHz. The change in inductance of the coils was monitored during battery cycling, as the metallic content of the electrode changed. Following correction for temperature changes, the technique is capable of estimating the SOC of a battery to an accuracy of ±10%. The inductance profiles that were obtained changed shape as the batteries aged and also with the exciting frequency. The origins of these changes are discussed.     

Control Algorithm of Fuel Cell and Batteries for Distributed Generation System

This paper intends to propose a novel control algorithm for utilizing a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) as a main power source and batteries as a complementary source, for hybrid power sources for distributed generation system, particularly for future electric vehicle applications. The control, which takes into account the slow dynamics of a fuel cell (FC) in order to avoid fuel (hydrogen and air) starvation problems, is obviously simpler than state machines used for hybrid source control. The control strategy lies in using an FC for supplying energy to battery and load at the dc bus. The structure is an FC current, battery current, and battery state-of-charge (SOC) cascade control. To validate the proposed principle, a hardware system is realized by analogical circuits for the FC current loop and numerical calculation (dSPACE) for the battery current and SOC loops. Experimental results with small-scale devices (a 500 W PEM FC and 33 Ah, 48 V lead-acid battery bank) illustrate the excellent control scheme during motor drive cycles.     

Recent progress in the application of carbon materials to supercapacitors and lead-carbon batteries

新型炭材料是电化学储能领域中非常重要的一类储能材料,目前广泛应用于各种电化学储能器件.本文综述了具有电容特性的高比表面积炭材料在超级电容器与铅炭电池中的应用.采用不同的方法合成具有高比表面积的新型炭材料作为超级电容器电极材料,能够得到较高的比容量.适量高比表面积的炭材料应用于铅酸电池负极,形成铅炭电池,极大地提高了电池的储能特性.论文最后探讨了新型炭材料在超电容以及铅炭电池中应用的发展方向.     

Advanced management strategies for remote-area power-supply systems

An operating strategy based on partial-state-of-charge (PSoC) operation has been developed for a remote-area power-supply (RAPS) system in Peru. The facility will power an entire village and comprises a photovoltaic array, a bank of gel valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries, a diesel generator, and a sophisticated control system. The PSoC schedule involves operation below a full state-of-charge (SoC) for 28 days, followed by an equalization charge. The schedule has been evaluated by operating a 24 V battery bank under simulated RAPS conditions in the laboratory. It is found that operation between 58 and 83% SoC causes the negative-plate potentials to move to significantly more negative values during charging as the PSoC duty progresses. This behaviour is undesirable, because it can lead to the activation of a preset limit and a subsequent reduction in system efficiency. Lowering the PSoC window to 47–72% SoC or 40–65% SoC during the 28-day cycle is found to stabilize the negative-plate potentials. The behaviour of the negative plates in gel batteries is very similar to that observed for absorptive glass mat (AGM) designs of VRLA batteries operated in hybrid electric vehicles.     

Lead-acid batteries for micro- and mild-hybrid applications

Car manufactures have announced the launch in coming months of vehicles with reduced emissions due to the introduction of new functions like stop–start and regenerative braking. Initial performance request of automotive lead-acid batteries are becoming more and more demanding and, in addition to this, cycle life with new accelerated ageing profiles are being proposed in order to determine the influence of the new functions on the expected battery life. This paper will show how different lead-acid battery technologies comply with these new demands, from an improved version of the conventional flooded SLI battery to the high performance of spiral wound valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery. Different approaches have been studied for improving conventional flooded batteries, i.e., either by the addition of new additives for reducing electrolyte stratification or by optimisation of the battery design to extend cycling life in partial state of charge conditions. With respect to VRLA technology, two different battery designs have been compared. Spiral wound design combines excellent power capability and cycle life under different depth of discharge (DoD) cycling conditions, but flat plate design outperform the latter in energy density due to better utilization of the space available in a prismatic enclosure. This latter design is more adequate for high end class vehicles with high electrical energy demand, whereas spiral wound is better suited for high power/long life demand of commercial vehicle. High temperature behaviour (75 °C) is rather poor for both designs due to water loss, and then VRLA batteries should preferably be located out of the engine compartment.     

Single and multi‐objective optimization for the performance enhancement of lead–acid battery cell

Electric energy storage systems are used considerably in industries and daily applications. The demand for batteries with high energy content has increased because of their use in hybrid vehicles. Lead–acid batteries have wide applications because of their advantages such as high safety factor and low cost of production. The major shortcoming of lead–acid batteries is low energy content and high dimension and weight. Nowadays, a common method to increase the energy content of lead–acid battery is the experimental method with trial and error, which is time consuming and expensive. In this paper, non‐isothermal one‐dimensional numerical simulation of lead–acid battery with finite volume method is performed. In addition, a cell with higher energy content and lower thickness is designed by using particle swarm optimization algorithm based on developed simulation code. The results of single objective optimization show that an optimal battery that has 27.6% higher energy can be made with the same cell dimension. The results also show that an optimum cell battery can be obtained with a decrease of 24% in thickness while keeping the energy the same. Moreover, a multi‐objective optimization algorithm is utilized to find Pareto optimal solutions while considering the energy content and thickness objectives simultaneously. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impedance measurements on lead–acid batteries for state-of-charge,state-of-health and cranking capability prognosis in electric and hybrid electric vehicles

Various attempts have been made to use impedance measurements for online analysis and offline modelling of lead–acid batteries. This presentation gives an overview on the latest and successful approaches based on impedance measurements to assess state-of-charge (SoC), state-of-health (SoH) and cranking capability of lead–acid batteries. Furthermore, it is shown that impedance data can serve as a basis for dynamic battery models for the simulation of vehicle power-supply systems. The methods and procedures aim for a reliable prediction of battery performance in electric vehicles, hybrid cars and classical automotive applications. Although, it will become obvious that impedance measurements give valuable information on the battery state, typically the information needs to be combined with other conventional algorithms or self-learning tools to achieve reliable and stable results for real-world applications.     

Residual learning rates in lead-acid batteries: Effects on emerging technologies

The low price of lead-acid, the most popular battery, is often used in setting cost targets for emerging energy storage technologies. Future cost reductions in lead acid batteries could increase investment and time scales needed for emerging storage technologies to reach cost-parity. In this paper the first documented model of cost reductions for lead-acid batteries is developed. Regression to a standard experience curve using 1989–2012 data yield a poor fit, with R² values of 0.17 for small batteries and 0.05 for larger systems. To address this problem, battery costs are separated into material and residual costs, and experience curves developed for residual costs. Depending on the year, residual costs account for 41–86% of total battery cost. Using running-time averages to address volatility in material costs, a 4-year time average experience curve for residual costs yield much higher R², 0.78 for small and 0.74 for large lead-acid batteries. The learning rate for residual costs in lead-acid batteries is 20%, a discovery with policy implications. Neglecting to consider cost reductions in lead-acid batteries could result in failure of energy storage start-ups and public policy programs. Generalizing this result, learning in incumbent technologies must be understood to assess the potential of emerging ones.     

VRLA Ultrabattery for high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation

The objective of this study is to produce and test the hybrid valve-regulated Ultrabattery designed specifically for hybrid-electric vehicle duty, i.e., high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation. The Ultrabattery developed by CSIRO Energy Technology is a hybrid energy-storage device, which combines an asymmetric supercapacitor, and a lead-acid battery in one unit cells, taking the best from both technologies without the need for extra, expensive electronic controls. The capacitor will enhance the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer during high-rate discharging and charging. Consequently, this hybrid technology is able to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking. The work programme of this study is divided into two main parts, namely, field trial of prototype Ultrabatteries in a Honda Insight HEV and laboratory tests of prototype batteries. In this paper, the performance of prototype Ultrabatteries under different laboratory tests is reported.     

光伏电力混合储能系统的能量管理策略研究

文章提出了一种光伏电力混合储能系统的能量管理控制策略,主要应用于含有光伏电源(Photovoltaic,PV)、电池能量存储(Battery Energy Storage, BES)和交流负载的发电网络系统中。该策略能够充分利用电力系统中组合架构之间的连接关系,有效缓解了目前电网中BES系统存在的过充电、欠充电等问题,并将充放电电流控制在一个相对稳定的范围内,延长了电池的使用寿命。分别在含有传统铅酸和锂离子电池的混合能量系统中使用6 kVA电源转换器进行实验,结果证明了所提出的能量管理策略的正确性和有效性。     

Influence of carbons on the structure of the negative active material of lead-acid batteries and on battery performance

It has been established that addition of carbon additives to the lead negative active material (NAM) of lead-acid batteries increase battery charge acceptance in hybrid electric vehicle mode of operation. The present work studies three types of activated carbons and two types of carbon blacks with the aim to evaluate their efficiency in improving the charge acceptance of lead-acid batteries. It has been established that the size of carbon particles and their affinity to lead are essential. If carbon particles are of nanosizes, they are incorporated into the bulk of the skeleton branches of NAM and may thus increase the latter's ohmic resistance. Their content in NAM should not exceed 0.2-0.5 wt.%. At this loading level, carbon grains are adsorbed only on the surface of NAM contributing to the increase of its specific surface area and thus improving its charge acceptance. When carbon particles are of micron sizes and have high affinity to lead, they are integrated into the skeleton structure of NAM as a structural component and act as super-capacitors, i.e. electric charges are concentrated in them and then the current is distributed along the adjacent branches of the lead skeleton with the lowest ohmic resistance. This eventually improves the charge acceptance of the negative battery plates.     

Carbon reactions and effects on valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery cycle life in high-rate, partial state-of-charge cycling

VRLA batteries in hybrid electric vehicles are operated at a partial state of charge with high current draws for acceleration and regenerative braking. Adding larger amounts of carbon particles to the negative plate material extends battery life. Water loss and increasing internal resistance are a cause of a subsequent failure mode that is related to the carbon and other organic additives in the negative plate. Previous studies of the composition and volume of gases vented from valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries and acid-limited batteries at various temperatures and current levels are reviewed and used to develop an understanding of carbon reactions and their effects on battery state of health.     

Porous microspheres as additives in lead–acid batteries

The theoretical specific energy of the lead/acid battery is 176 W h kg⁻¹. The specific energy actually achieved depends on the discharge rate but is typically only about 15–25% of this maximum value. The major reason for the lead acid battery's inability to obtain higher specific energies is that much of the active material in both the positive and negative electrode is not discharged. This is especially true at the higher discharge rates where the diffusion of sulfate ions into the positive plate limits the reaction. Porous, hollow, glass microspheres (PHGM) would allow for more electrolyte storage in the electrodes and enhance the high rate energy storage of lead acid batteries. In this paper, we present a method for making hollow, glass microspheres (HGMs) porous. Presently our process only produces small yields. We believe in the future that the yields with our process can be substantially increased. PHGMs could substantially improve the high rate performance of lead acid batteries and make these batteries more attractive for hybrid electric vehicle applications.     

Development of ultra-battery for hybrid-electric vehicle applications

Transport is one of the largest sources of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions and fossil-fuels consumption. This has lead to a growing demand for hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) to reduce air pollution and consumption of fossil fuels.CSIRO Energy Technology has developed the ultra-battery, a new technology that will reduce the cost and boost the performance of batteries in HEVs. The ultra-battery is a hybrid energy-storage device, which combines an asymmetric supercapacitor, and a lead-acid battery in one unit cell, taking the best from both technologies without the need for extra electronic controls. The capacitor will enhance the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer in discharging and charging. Consequently, this hybrid technology is able to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking.The ultra-battery has been subjected to a variety of tests. To date, results show that the discharge and charge power of the ultra-battery is ∼50% higher and its cycle-life is at least three times longer than that of the conventional lead-acid counterpart. Furthermore, the ultra-battery is able to be produced as either flooded-electrolyte or valve-regulated designs in the existing lead-acid factory and also able to reconfigure for a variety of applications, such as conventional automobile, power tool, forklift, high-power uninterruptible power supply and remote-area power supply.The prototype ultra-batteries have been constructed and are under laboratory evaluation and field trial. The success of the ultra-battery will obviously make HEVs more affordable and widespread. This, in turn, will reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the urban environment and the consumption of limited supplies of fossil fuels.