Ultrafine Grain Formation in a Ti-6Al-4V Alloy by Thermomechanical Processing of a Martensitic Microstructure

In the current study, ultrafine equiaxed grains with a size of 150 to 800 nm were successfully produced in a Ti-6Al-4V alloy through thermomechanical processing of a martensitic starting microstructure. This was achieved through a novel mechanism of grain refinement consisting of several concurrent processes. This involves the development of substructure in the lath interiors at an early stage of deformation, which progressed into small high-angle segments with increasing strain. Consequently, the microstructure was gradually transformed to an equiaxed ultrafine grained structure, mostly surrounded by high-angle grain boundaries, through continuous dynamic recrystallization. Simultaneously, the supersaturated martensite was decomposed during deformation, leading to the progressive formation of beta phase, mainly nucleated on the intervariant lath boundaries.     

Fe-6.5%Si合金温轧后退火过程中再结晶行为

用电子背散射技术观察了700℃温轧板在退火过程中的组织及织构演变以了解其再结晶行为.结果表明,温轧织构由强的（111）〈112〉、较弱的〈110〉∥RD及Goss组成,再结晶织构与之相似.〈110〉∥RD及（111）〈112〉新晶粒首先形成于与之构成小角度晶界的形变晶粒的晶界附近,而在角隅及组织不均匀区等位置孕育出与周围晶粒构成大角度晶界的晶核,择优取向不明显.退火过程中（111）〈112〉在形变组织中累积,最终转化为（111）〈112〉再结晶晶粒.分析认为,温轧后退火是不均匀组织在低储存能驱动下的再结晶过程.（112）〈110〉及（111）〈112〉形变拉长晶粒多发生连续再结晶从而退火织构与形变态相似.在角隅区形成核心进而发生不连续再结晶,核心取向的统计性及不连续晶核的长大弱化再结晶织构,其中Goss晶粒多以此方式形成于（111）〈112〉晶粒内部.      

Near-Surface Deformed Layers on Rolled Aluminum Alloys

Near-surface deformed layers, which are characterized by nano-sized fine grains, are generated in aluminum alloys by hot and cold rolling. During the rolling processes, the alloy surface and near-surface regions experience a high level of shear deformation that results in significant microstructure refinement, leading to formation of near-surface deformed layers with microstructures different from that of the underlying bulk alloy. Two types of near-surface deformed layers are observed. Type A is characterized by fine grains with grain boundaries decorated by oxide particles; type B is characterized also by fine grains but with the grain boundaries free of oxide particles. The high levels of shear deformation result in dynamic recrystallization. Together with mechanical alloying, this is responsible for the formation of the near-surface deformed layer. Furthermore, the structure in the near-surface deformed layer can survive the typical annealing process particularly if the grain boundaries are pinned by oxide particles.     

Static recrystallization mechanisms in a coarse-grained Nb-microalloyed austenite

Static recrystallization mechanisms have been studied in a coarse-grained Nb microalloyed austenite. An austenite with a coarse grain size of 800 μm, typical of thin slab casting processes, has been deformed in torsion at a temperature of 1100 °C. After deformation, the specimens have been held for different times at this high temperature and then water quenched. The microstructural changes occurring during static recrystallization were characterized by metallographic evaluation. It has been observed that new recrystallized grains nucleate preferentially on parent austenite grain boundaries and tend to form in clusters. Once all the boundaries have been consumed, intragranular nucleation is actived at late stages of recrystallization. Clustered nucleation allows impingement to take place early during the recrystallization process, favoring grain-coarsening phenomena to occur behind the recrystallization front, which is denoted by the significant reduction in the number of grains per unit volume observed during early stages of recrystallization. Static recrystallization proceeds heterogeneously, as a result of a nonuniform distribution of stored energy in the deformed material. A continuous decrease of the average migration rate of the recrystallization front is observed, which can be ascribed to the reduction of the driving force for migration as recrystallization advances.     

Recrystallization Behavior of a Heavily Deformed Austenitic Stainless Steel During Iterative Type Annealing

The study describes evolution of the recrystallization microstructure in an austenitic stainless steel during iterative or repetitive type annealing process. The starting heavily cold deformed microstructure consisted of a dual phase structure i.e., strain-induced martensite (SIM) (43 pct in volume) and heavily deformed large grained retained austenite. Recrystallization behavior was compared with Johnson Mehl Avrami and Kolmogorov model. Early annealing iterations led to reversion of SIM to reversed austenite. The microstructure changes observed in the retained austenite and in the reverted austenite were mapped by electron backscatter diffraction technique and transmission electron microscope. The reversed austenite was characterized by a fine polygonal substructure consisting of low-angle grain boundaries. With an increasing number of annealing repetitions, these boundaries were gradually replaced by high-angle grain boundaries and recrystallized into ultrafine-grained microstructure. On the other hand, recrystallization of retained austenite grains was sluggish in nature. Progress of recrystallization in these grains was found to take place by a gradual evolution of subgrains and their subsequent transformation into fine grains. The observed recrystallization characteristics suggest continuous recrystallization type process. The analysis provided basic insight into the recrystallization mechanisms that enable the processing of ultrafine-grained fcc steels by iterative type annealing. Tensile properties of the processed material showed a good combination of strength and ductility.     

Static Recrystallization Kinetics and Crystallographic Texture of Nb-Stabilized Ferritic Stainless Steel Based on Orientation Imaging Microscopy

In the present study, Nb-stabilized ferritic stainless steel was prepared with annealing (430-A) and without annealing (430-NA) annealing, and the microstructure of the resulting samples was examined. The steel was then subjected to cold rolling and isothermal annealing in order to analyze its recrystallization kinetics and texture evolution. Microstructural characterization was performed by scanning and transmission electron microscopies. Recrystallization kinetics were evaluated by measuring the microhardness of the samples, and analyzing their kernel average misorientation and grain orientation spread via electron backscatter diffraction. The Avrami exponent data revealed that one-dimensional grain growth occurred owing to the migration of high-angle grain boundaries. The mean activation energies for recrystallization for 430-NA and 430-A was found to be 365 and 419 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively. The recrystallization texture was influenced by oriented nucleation and selected growth mechanisms, as well as by the Nb carbonitride distribution and grain boundary energy. The recrystallized and growing grains with the {554}〈225〉 orientation showed a dimensional advantage over the other recrystallized components. The coincident site lattice boundaries were attributed to the progression of recrystallization since the CSL numeric fraction increased as the temperature increased. The {554}〈225〉 component was associated with the ∑19a boundary, which exerted a significant control on the selective growth during the recrystallization.

     

Cyclic deformation of pure aluminum bicrystals

The dynamic behavior of 〈112〉-tilt grain boundaries in aluminium bicrystals under the influence of cyclic stresses at elevated temperatures is reviewed. Bicrystals, containing low- and high-angle grain boundaries within a wide range of misorientation angles, were deformed at several combinations of stress, temperature, and number of cycles. The grain-boundary (GB) displacement and the deformed structure of bicrystals were framed using standard optical microscopy. The grain orientations were measured using the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), before and after the deformation. There is distinct evidence of a sharp transition angle between low- and high-angle grain boundaries, with respect to the ability of the boundaries to move under the given parameters. The experimental observations lead to the conclusion that a difference in the dislocation structure in two grains causes the driving force for GB migration.     

The effect of small deformation on abnormal grain growth in bulk Cu

The effect of small deformation below the level (about 8 pct) required for primary recrystallization on abnormal grain growth (secondary recrystallization) has been investigated in bulk polycrystalline Cu. The starting microstructure, without any texture and with a nearly uniform grain size of 168 μm, has been obtained by compressing a cylindrical Cu specimen and recrystallizing at 800 °C. The fully recrystallized specimen shows distinct abnormal grain growth (AGG) after heat treatment at 800 °C for 12 hours. Most of the grain boundaries are faceted when observed under transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and most of the faceted segments are expected to be singular. A singular grain boundary free of defects will migrate by two-dimensional nucleation of new layers, with its velocity varying nonlinearly with the driving force arising from the grain-size difference. Such a growth mechanism is analogous to the well known process for the growth of crystals with singular surfaces from liquid or vapor. The grains slightly larger than the average size will hardly grow, because the driving force for their growth is not sufficient for nucleation of new crystal layers at the boundaries. Those grains larger than a certain critical size will, however, grow at ever-increasing rates with their increasing size, because of the sufficient driving force for two-dimensional nucleation. Such a selective accelerated growth of large grains results in overall AGG behavior. The specimen deformed to 2 pct shows AGG after heat treatment for only 5 minutes at 800 °C, and after 1 hour, large impinged grains are obtained. The grain boundaries show many extrinsic dislocations even after the heat treatments. As proposed earlier by Gleiter, Balluffi, Smith, and their colleagues, the extrinsic grain-boundary dislocations increase the grain-boundary mobilities even at low driving forces, and, hence, even those grains slightly larger than the average size can rapidly grow at the early stages of the heat treatment, in agreement with the observation. In the specimens deformed to 4 to 8 pct, below the level for primary recrystallization, all grains grow steadily without producing distinct AGG. With high densities of extrinsic dislocations at the grain boundaries even after long heat treatments, all grains can readily grow, resulting in overall growth patterns resembling the normal growth. When deformed to 20 and 50 pct, primary recrystallization occurs, and the subsequent AGG behavior depends on the grain size obtained at the completion of the primary recrystallization. Similar small-deformation effects are observed with heat treatment at 600 °C.     

粗晶Mg-3Gd-1Zn合金高温压缩变形过程中的动态再结晶

研究了粗晶Mg-3Gd-1Zn合金在723 ～823 K,应变速率0.100 ～0.001s-1条件下单轴压缩变形过程中的动态再结晶行为.研究结果表明,其热压缩曲线为典型的动态再结晶型,峰值流变应力和稳态流变应力随温度的升高而减小,随应变速率的增大而增大;在该实验温度范围内其变形激活能约为140 kJ·mol-1;再结晶晶粒尺寸lnd与lnZ参数偏离线性关系,且变形温度对再结晶晶粒尺寸的影响比应变速率更大.利用金相和电子背散射技术(EBSD)对773 K,0.010 s-1条件下压缩不同变形量的Mg-3Gd-1Zn合金进行了组织表征,发现其动态再结晶大都发生在孪晶界及其与原始晶界的交叉处,主要为孪生诱发动态再结晶形核(TDRX)机制.再结晶形核初期形状不规则,晶界倾向于呈直角,随着应变量的增大,由于晶界的局部迁移,再结晶晶粒逐渐转变为稳定的等轴晶.     

Evaluation of Al3Mg2 Precipitates and Mn-Rich Phase in Aluminum-Magnesium Alloy Based on Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Imaging

Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were used to observe intergranular and intragranular ??-phase (Al₃Mg₂) formation and growth in as-received sample and long-term (~1?year) thermally treated samples of 5083-H131 alloy. Rod-shaped and equiaxed particles rich in Mn, Fe, and Cr were present in the as-received and heat treated samples. The ??-phase precipitated along grain boundaries as well as around and between preexisting Mn-Fe-Cr rich particles. The measured thickness of ??-phase along grain boundaries was lower than Zener?CHillert diffusion model predicted value and the potential reasons were theoretically analyzed. Dislocation networks, grain boundaries, and different preexisting particles were observed to contribute to Mg diffusion and ??-phase precipitation.     

Computer simulation of recrystallization—III. Influence of a dispersion of fine particles

Two-dimensional Monte Carlo simulations of recrystallization have been carried out in the presence of incoherent and immobile particles for a range of different particle fractions, a range of stored energies and a range of densities of potential nuclei (embryos). For stored energies greater than a critical value (H/J > 1) the recrystallization front can readily pass the particles leading to a random density of particles on the front and a negligible influence of particles on the recrystallization kinetics. At lower stored energies the particles pin the recrystallization front leading to incomplete recrystallization. However at very low particle fractions, when the new grain has grown much larger than the matrix grains, before meeting any particles, the new grains can complete the consumption of the deformed grains giving complete “recrystallization” by a process that appears to be similar to abnormal grain growth. Particles are, as reported previously, very effective at pinning grain boundaries, both of the deformed and recrystallized grains, when boundaries migrate under essentially the driving force of boundary energy alone. Such boundaries show a density of particles that rises rapidly from the random value found at the start of the simulation. As a consequence, particles very strongly inhibit normal grain growth after recrystallization. Such growth can only occur if the as-recrystallized grain size is less than the limiting grain size seen in the absence of recrystallization. Under these circumstances a small increment of grain growth occurs until the grain boundaries once again acquire a higher than random density of particles.     

Recrystallization and formation of austenite in deformed lath martensitic structure of low carbon steels

The effect of prior deformation on the processes of tempering and austenitizing of lath martensite was studied by using low carbon steels. The recrystallization of as-quenched lath martensite was not observed on tempering while the deformed lath martensite easily recrystallized. The behavior of austenite formation in deformed specimens was different from that in as-quenched specimens because of the recrystallization of deformed lath martensite. The austenitizing behavior (and thus the austenite grain size) in deformed specimens was controlled by the competition of austenite formation with the recrystallization of lath martensite. In the case of as-quenched (non-deformed) lath martensite, the austenite particles were formed preferentially at prior austenite grain boundaries and then formed within the austenite grains mainly along the packet, block, and lath boundaries. On the other hand, in the case of lightly deformed (30 to 50 pct) lath martensite, the recrystallization of the matrix rapidly progressed prior to the formation of austenite, and the austenite particles were formed mainly at the boundaries of fairly fine recrystallized ferrite grains. When the lath martensite was heavily deformed (75 to 84 pct), the austenite formation proceeded almost simultaneously with the recrystallization of lath martensite. In such a situation, very fine austenite grain structure was obtained most effectively.     

Recrystallization Phenomena During Friction Stir Processing of Hypereutectic Aluminum-Silicon Alloy

Microstructural evolution and related dynamic recrystallization phenomena were investigated in overlapping multipass friction stir processing (FSP) of hypereutectic Al-30 pct Si alloy. FSP resulted in the elimination of porosities along with the refinement of primary silicon particles and alpha aluminum grains. These alpha aluminum grains predominantly exhibit high angle boundaries with various degrees of recovered substructure and dislocation densities. The substructure and grain formation during FSP take place primarily by annihilation and reorganization of dislocations in the grain interior and at low angle grain boundary. During multipass overlap FSP, small second phase particles were observed to form, which are accountable for pinning the grain boundaries and thus restricting their growth. During the multipass overlap FSP, the microstructure undergoes continuous dynamic recrystallization by formation of the subgrain boundary and subgrain growth to the grain structure comprising of mostly high angle grain boundaries.     

Ferrite recrystallization and austenite formation in cold-rolled intercritically annealed steel

The recrystallization of ferrite and austenite formation during intercritical annealing were studied in a 0.08C-1.45Mn-0.21Si steel by light and transmission electron microscopy. Normalized specimens were cold rolled 25 and 50 pct and annealed between 650 °C and 760 °C. Recrystallization of the 50 pct deformed ferrite was complete within 30 seconds at 760 °C. Austenite formation initiated concurrently with the ferrite recrystallization and continued beyond complete recrystallization of the ferrite matrix. The recrystallization of the deformed ferrite and the spheroidization of the cementite in the deformed pearlite strongly influence the formation and distribution of austenite produced by intercritical annealing. Austenite forms first at the grain boundaries of unrecrystallized and elongated ferrite grains and the spheroidized cementite colonies associated with ferrite grain boundaries. Spheroidized cementite particles dispersed within recrystallized ferrite grains by deformation and annealing phenomena were the sites for later austenite formation.     

Textures of low carbon and titanium bearing extra low carbon steel sheets hot rolled below their AR3 temperatures

The textures of warm rolled low carbon and Ti-bearing extra low carbon steel sheets have been investigated using ODF's ECC-ECP (electron channeling contrast-electron channeling pattern) and selected area electron diffraction and the following results were obtained: (1) The main orientation of the low carbon steel sheet was near {113}〈110〉 while that of Ti-bearing extra low carbon steel was near 〈111〉//ND. (2) The recrystallization of the low carbon steel occurred mainly from deformed {100} grains while the main nucleation sites in the Ti-bearing extra low carbon steel were the grain boundaries of the deformed {111} grains. (3) The main orientations of grains recrystallized from deformed {100} grains are {100}〈110〉−{112}〈110〉 for both steels. (4) The orientation of the grains recrystallized from the deformed {111} grains of the Ti-bearing extra low carbon steel is mostly near 〈111〉//ND and that of the low carbon steel is mainly near {114}〈110〉. This difference is discussed in terms of the influence of carbon in solution on the crystal rotation at nucleation sites. (5) It is concluded that the different recrystallization textures formed in the two steels is explained by the difference in the preferred nucleation sites and in the local crystal rotations in the vicinity of grain boundaries.     

Transmission pseudo-Kossel (TK) studies of recrystallized hot-deformed (dynamically recovered) polycrystalline aluminium

The early stages of recrystallization of new grains in previously hot-deformed polycrystalline aluminium samples have been studied using the transmission pseudo-Kossel technique to establish the orientational relationship between the new strain-free grains and the adjacent deformed grains. The aluminium samples were deformed to true strains of 0.22 and 0.51 at 300°C with a strain rate of 4.61 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. The hot-deformed samples were quenched in water after the deformation and the delay time was less than 10 s. Recrystallization studies were carried out at 300°C. The orientational measurements showed that at the early stages of recrystallization the orientations of the new grains were within the orientational spread of the adjacent deformed grains. The predominant mechanism of nucleation was found to be strain induced boundary migration (SIBM).     

退火参数对ZE42镁合金热挤压板显微组织结构的影响

采用光学显微镜和TEM观察等方法,分析了ZE42镁合金热挤压板材在不同退火温度和时间条件下的显微组织结构。结果表明:该合金板材经过退火热处理后均发生明显的再结晶组织转变,晶粒尺寸在10～60μm之间,合金基体中存在大量含有稀土元素的第二相颗粒,这些第二相在热变形过程中破碎成细小的颗粒,促进了再结晶晶粒的形核。当退火温度一定时,随着保温时间的延长,该合金板材的平均晶粒尺寸首先增加,随后少量减小,最后又随退火时间的增加而增加;当保温时间一定时,随着退火温度的增加,晶粒平均尺寸持续增加,并且温度越高,增长速率越大。同时,通过晶粒长大动力学分析和计算建立了该合金再结晶晶粒长大的动力学模型,通过计算可知:该合金的再结晶晶界迁移激活能为15.32 kJ·mol-1。     

Dynamic deformation behavior of ultrafine-grained low-carbon steels fabricated by equal-channel angular pressing

The dynamic deformation behavior of ultrafine-grained low-carbon steels fabricated by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) was investigated in this study. Dynamic torsional tests, using a torsional Kolsky bar, were conducted on four steel specimens, two of which were annealed at 480 °C after ECAP, and then the test data were compared in terms of microstructures, tensile properties, and adiabatic shear-band formation. The equal-channel angular pressed specimen consisted of very fine, equiaxed grains of 0.2 to 0.3 μm in size, which were slightly coarsened after annealing. The dynamic torsional test results indicated that maximum shear stress decreased with increasing annealing time, whereas fracture shear strain increased. Some adiabatic shear bands were observed at the gage center of the dynamically deformed torsional specimen. Their width was smaller in the equal-channel angular pressed specimen than in the 1-hour-annealed specimen, but they were not found in the 24-hour-annealed specimen. Ultrafine, equiaxed grains of 0.05 to 0.2 μm in size were formed inside the adiabatic shear band, and their boundaries had characteristics of high-angle grain boundaries. These phenomena were explained by dynamic recrystallization due to a highly localized plastic strain and temperature rise during dynamic deformation.     

Effect of initial microstructure on microstructural instability and creep resistance of XD TiAl alloys

A number of lamellar structures were produced in XD TiAl alloys (Ti-45 at. pct and 47 at. pct Al-2 at. pct Nb-2 at. pct Mn+0.8 vol pct TiB₂) by selected heat treatments. During creep deformation, microstructural degradation of the lamellar structure was characterized by coarsening and spheroidization, resulting in the formation of fine globular structures at the grain boundaries. Grain boundary sliding (GBS) was thought to occur in local grains with a fine grain size, further accelerating the microstructural degradation and increasing the creep rate. The initial microstructural features had a great effect on microstructural instability and creep resistance. Large amounts of equiaxed γ grains hastened dynamic recrystallization, and the presence of fine lamellae increased the susceptibility to deformation-induced spheroidization. However, the coarsening and spheroidization were suppressed by stabilization treatments, resulting in better creep resistance than the microstructures without these treatments. Furthermore, well-interlocked grain boundaries with lamellar incursions were effective in restraining the onset of GBS and microstructural degradation. In the microstructures with smooth grain boundaries, a fine lamellar spacing significantly lowered the minimum creep rate but rapidly increased the tertiary creep rate for the 45 XD alloy. For the 47 XD alloy, well-interlocked grain boundaries dramatically improved the creep resistance of nearly and fully lamellar (FL) structures, in spite of the presence of coarse lamellar spacing or equiaxed γ grains. However, it may not be feasible to produce a microstructure with both a fine lamellar spacing and well-interlocked grain boundaries. If that is the case, it is suggested that the latter feature is more beneficial for creep resistance in XD TiAl alloys with relatively fine grains.