Effect of arc discharge on the wear rate and wear mode transition of a copper-impregnated metallized carbon contact strip sliding against a copper disk

Wear of the contact strip on the pantograph of electric railway vehicles is governed mainly by arc discharge occurring simultaneously with break of contact between the strip and trolley wire. As a step to clarify the wear mechanism of metallized carbon contact strips under the occurrence of contact break arc discharge, a detailed sliding wear test of 30 min duration was carried out for the combination of a copper-impregnated carbon strip and a copper disk at a sliding speed of 100 km/h. The worn surfaces of the strip and disk were observed every 5 min. The voltage drop and electric current were measured throughout the test, and the occurrence and energy of the arc discharge were evaluated for each revolution of the disk. The wear process is considered in terms of the wear mode transition, and the effect of arc discharge on the mode transition and wear rate of the strip is discussed.     

滑板倾斜对碳滑板/纯铜接触线高速滑动摩擦磨损性能的影响

使用环-块式高速摩擦磨损试验机,试验研究在交流电场中滑板倾斜对电弧放电以及碳滑板/纯铜接触线高速滑动摩擦磨损性能的影响。结果表明,电流为100 A时,碳滑板材料的磨损量随着接触压力和滑板倾斜角度的增大而逐渐减小,试验盘每转平均放电能量也随着接触压力和滑板倾斜角度的增大而逐渐减小,碳滑板磨损率随着电弧能量的增大而增大;当滑板有倾斜角时,在弓网电滑动摩擦过程中会出现受电弓与接触线分离的状态,且滑板倾角越大,分离的时间就越长,这种现象影响列车受流质量和运行平稳性。因此实际弓网系统中要避免滑板倾斜角过大,滑板倾角应小于2°。     

环境湿度对浸金属碳滑板磨损及温升的影响

为探究环境湿度对弓网摩擦副载流滑动过程中电弧放电能量、浸金属碳滑板温升及滑板磨损量的影响,采用环-块式高速载流摩擦磨损试验台,对比不同湿度条件下,电弧能量、滑板温升及滑板磨损量随滑动速度、电流强度、法向力的变化情况。试验结果表明：不同环境湿度下,滑动速度和电流强度的增大均会导致电弧能量及滑板温升急剧增大;电弧热是导致温升的主要热源;增大法向力对于抑制电弧放电、降低滑板温升均有显著效果,而对于滑板磨损量变化的影响,不同湿度情况则截然相反;高湿度环境下接触副附着的水膜改善了接触状况和散热情况,电弧能量及滑板温升都小于低湿度环境;低湿度环境下滑板表面受到更严重的机械摩擦,其表面状态相比高湿度更差;在平均湿度较高的夏季适当增加升弓压力,在平均湿度较低的冬季适当降低列车行驶速度可以减少浸金属碳滑板磨损。     

电弧能量对碳滑板/铜接触线高速滑动摩擦磨损性能影响

在环-块式高速摩擦磨损试验机上,试验研究在交流电场和不同接触压力条件下电弧放电对纯碳滑板/铜接触线高速滑动摩擦磨损性能的影响。试验结果表明:纯碳滑板/铜接触线的摩擦因数随着接触压力的增大而减小,无电流时,摩擦因数一般在0.38～0.59之间波动,有电流时,摩擦因数一般在0.27～0.57之间波动;随着接触压力的增大,电弧放电频率以及单个采样间隔时间内离线电弧放电能量随之减小;加载100 A电流时,纯碳滑板材料的磨损量高于无电流时滑板材料的磨损量,且磨损量随着接触压力的增大而逐渐减小;碳滑板的磨损率随电弧能量的增大而增大,呈比例关系。     

Sliding wear behavior of copper alloy contact wire against copper-based strip for high-speed electrified railways

This paper reports the study of the sliding wear behavior of the Cu–Ag–Cr wire. Cu–Ag–Cr alloy is a promising contact wire material for high-speed electrified railways, which has an excellent combination of mechanical strength and electrical conductivity. Wear tests were conducted under laboratory with a special sliding wear apparatus, which simulated the tribological conditions of sliding current collectors on overhead wires in the railway system. The Cu–Ag–Cr alloy wire was slid against a copper-based powder metallurgy strip under unlubricated conditions. The same strip as those in the train systems were used. Worn surfaces of the Cu–Ag–Cr alloy wire were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrum (EDS). Within the studied range of electrical current, normal pressure and sliding speed, the wear rate increased with the increasing electrical current and the sliding distance. Compared with a Cu–Ag contact wire under the same conditions, the Cu–Ag–Cr alloy wire had much better wear resistance. Adhesive wear, abrasive wear and arc erosion were the dominant mechanisms during the electrical sliding processes.     

Arc Erosion Wear Characteristics and Mechanisms of Pure Carbon Strip Against Copper Under Arcing Conditions

The wear behavior of pure carbon strip against copper (carbon/copper pair) under continuous arcing condition was investigated. To simulate the extreme condition of continuous arc discharge at high current, sliding wear tests were conducted on a home-made wear tester. The arc erosion wear characteristics and mechanisms of carbon/copper pair were studied by analyzing the wear scars and wear debris of the carbon strip in detail. Therefore, various analytical techniques, including Raman spectroscopy, transmission and scanning electron microscopy, and focused ion beam systems, were utilized to characterize the wear scars and wear debris of the carbon strip. The results show that the wear rate and the degree of arc erosion of the carbon strip increase with increasing electric current density. Typical entwined turbostratic carbon nanospheres (ETCNs) exhibited sphere-like stacking structure that were observed in the microstructure of the wear debris of the carbon strip produced during the friction process with current, which is the characteristic of the textural changes in carbon materials under combined arcing and sliding friction conditions. Moreover, the number and size of ETCNs increase with the electric current density increase. The arc erosion wear mechanisms of the carbon/copper pair are mainly due to the synergetic action of oxidation ablation, local electric arc impact and high-temperature graphitization under continuous arcing.     

Friction and wear behavior of pure carbon strip sliding against copper contact wire under AC passage at high speeds

A series of tests on the friction and wear behaviour of pure carbon strip/copper contact wire with alternating current were conducted on a ring-on-block sliding tester at a high speed. The electric current, normal force and sliding velocity have distinct effects on the test results. The worn scar has the smallest size without electric current. The worn scar becomes larger with increasing electric current. Arc ablation pits, dark stream-lines of arc ablation, slipping marks, spalling blocks and the copper-like layer are found on the worn surfaces. Arc erosion, abrasive wear and adhesive wear are main wear mechanisms.     

地铁刚性弓网系统接触线磨损特性试验研究

为研究地铁刚性接触网系统接触线磨损的规律,以地铁刚性接触网系统常用的浸金属碳滑板/铜银合金接触线作为摩擦副,通过模拟地铁弓网系统运行参数,使用载流摩擦磨损试验机研究有、无电火花放电情况下,浸金属碳滑板与铜银合金接触线直流电滑动过程中磨损量、摩擦因数、载流效率随滑动距离的变化。试验结果表明：电火花放电会使得接触线与浸金属碳滑板磨损量显著上升,出现电火花放电时摩擦因数较小,弓网系统载流效率会明显降低同时出现大幅波动。试验后对碳滑板和接触线表面形貌的观察可知：电火花放电会使得浸金属碳滑板表面烧蚀坑数量和尺寸大小增加,同时会出现滑板材料大面积剥落和表面裂纹增多的问题,接触线表面形貌变得更加粗糙。     

Application of an energy wear approach to quantify fretting contact durability: Introduction of a wear energy capacity concept

A friction energy formalism is considered and adapted to formalize the fretting wear responses of adhesive wear and non-adhesive wear interfaces. It is shown that for non-adhesive wear tribocouples like hard coatings (TiN, TiC, etc.) the wear kinetics can be formalized using the accumulated friction dissipated energy. By contrast, adhesive wear contacts involving aluminium and titanium alloys display a critical dependance regarding the applied sliding amplitude. The wear kinetics of such systems is captured by considering a sliding reduced energy wear formulation. A combined composite energy wear formulation is then introduced to formalize the fretting wear response whatever the tribocouple behaviour. It is shown that a local approach, focusing on wear depth analysis, is required to predict interface durability. A FEM investigation demonstrates that the wear depth kinetics can be predicted by considering the accumulated energy density. It concludes that interface durability can be related to a single energy density capacity variable (χ) defined as the maximum accumulated energy density which can be dissipated in the interface before contact failure.     

刚性接触网中浸金属碳滑板在不同法向载荷下的载流摩擦磨损性能

为了更好地模拟浸金属碳滑板的实际应用工况,设置试验滑动距离为1 000 km,使用环-块式载流摩擦磨损试验机模拟地铁列车在刚性接触网系统中的运行条件,研究浸金属碳滑板在不同法向载荷作用下的载流摩擦磨损性能。试验结果表明：随着法向载荷的增大,摩擦因数不断增大,电弧能量下降,载流效率不断升高,滑板的温度以及磨损率都呈现出下降的趋势;随着滑动距离的增加,滑板的磨损率逐渐降低最后趋于稳定。SEM电镜观察结果表明：法向载荷较低时,浸金属碳滑板表面产生了较多烧蚀坑和裂纹,其磨损形式主要表现为电弧烧蚀以及片状剥落;随着法向载荷增大,滑板表面出现划痕和磨屑,磨粒磨损现象较为明显。研究表明：适当增大法向载荷可以有效抑制电弧的烧蚀作用,减少滑板表面的裂纹和烧蚀坑,从而降低滑板的磨损。     

地铁受电弓碳滑板冬季异常磨耗特点微观研究

以国内某地铁线路在冬季运行中出现异常磨耗的受电弓浸铜碳滑板为研究对象，借助多种微观测试手段，比较其表面形貌、微观组织、化学成分等与正常磨耗状态的碳滑板表面的差异，探究碳滑板出现异常磨耗的原因及机制。结果表明：与正常磨耗状态碳滑板相比，异常磨耗状态下碳滑板表面三维形貌崎岖且粗糙，其接触条件显著恶化，机械磨损、磨粒磨损、电弧烧蚀、材料转移等形式的磨损量均有增加；在进入秋冬季节后，碳滑板表面润滑条件发生改变、磨粒数量增加、直径增大、接触副温度上升，从而加剧了磨粒磨损和电弧烧蚀，造成碳滑板出现异常磨耗现象。对地铁运营过程进行跟踪监测后发现，碳滑板异常磨耗的出现与隧道内环境湿度的下降存在一定关联。     

The Study of Arc Rate,Friction, and Wear Performance of C/C Composites in Pantograph–Catenary System

A series of tests on arc rate, friction coefficient, and wear rate of electrical current collectors sliding against overhead contact wires under different conditions was carried out on a high-speed friction and wear testing machine with a pin-on-disc configuration. The worn surface morphology and composition were examined using a scanning electron microscope and energy dispersion spectrum analyzer, respectively. The effects of current, velocity, and load on the arc rate, friction coefficient, and wear rate of C/C composites/QCr0.5 couples were investigated, and the influence mechanism of test parameters on C/C composites was explained. It is concluded that the wear rate increases with an increase in current and velocity and has a decreasing trend with the increase in load. The friction coefficient increases with an increase in velocity and load. The arc rate of C/C composites/QCr0.5 couples increases with an increase in current and velocity. Under the condition of the same current and velocity, when the load is 70 N, the arc rate is the lowest.     

不同铜含量浸金属碳滑板的载流摩擦磨损性能*

为研究不同铜含量的浸金属碳滑块的载流摩擦磨损性能,在环-块试验机上研究3种不同铜含量(铜质量分数分别为1.17%、27.8%、50.45%)浸金属碳滑板与铜银合金接触线在载流条件下的摩擦磨损性能,并比较不同电流情况下的材料磨损表面形貌的变化。结果表明:铜含量对浸金属碳碳滑板的摩擦磨损性能有不同的影响。其中铜质量分数为1.17%的材料在200 A小电流情况下整体磨耗量较小,但是在400 A大电流情况下,电弧热、焦耳热产生的500℃左右高温会导致材料气化、掉块,严重加剧材料的损耗;铜质量分数为50.45%的材料在小电流情况下磨耗最大,但材料的运行温度整体较低,即材料的散热性能较好;铜质量分数为27.8%的材料在小电流与大电流情况下综合磨损性能最好。与铜银合金线对磨时,铜含量较高的材料出现了较为明显的黏着磨损,铜含量越高的材料其黏着磨损现象越明显。     

选择性激光熔化技术制备的Cu-10Sn合金的载流摩擦学性能

为提高Cu-10Sn合金接触线的力学及载流摩擦学性能,利用选择性激光熔化（SLM）技术制备Cu-10Sn合金,分析Cu-10Sn合金的组织结构及硬度等,研究不同载荷和电流对Cu-10Sn合金的载流摩擦学行为的影响;利用扫描电子显微镜对摩擦表面进行微观分析,揭示其磨损机制。试验结果表明：与载荷为10 N时相比,30 N时摩擦副的平均摩擦因数增大,接触电阻和电弧能量降低,磨损加剧;Cu-10Sn合金与GCr15球对摩,合金表面被氧化,铜元素被转移并粘附于对摩球上形成黏着磨损;与纯机械摩擦行为相比,载流条件下Cu-10Sn合金表面磨痕加深,黏着物、氧化物的数量明显增加,摩擦因数和磨损体积发生显著变化;小载荷小电流下磨痕表面出现电弧烧蚀现象;而电流为10 A时,磨损表面形成的氧化膜的润滑作用,减缓了材料的磨损。在无电流条件下磨损机制主要为疲劳磨损和黏着磨损;而在载流条件下,电化学氧化和黏着磨损显著增强。研究结论为SLM技术制备的铜锡合金应用于接触线等电传导接触材料提供参考。     

Thermal wear and electrical sliding wear behaviors of the polyimide modified polymer-matrix pantograph contact strip

In the present study, the polyimide resin (PI)/cashew-modified resin (YM) polymer-matrix pantograph contact strip (PMPCS) was prepared by using hot repressing, hydro-solidification and dipping treatment processes. The thermal properties of cured resins were studied by thermogravimetry analyzer and differential scanning calorimetry. The thermal wear and electrical sliding wear behaviors of PMPCS against copper were evaluated by a ring block wear tester at elevated temperature under dry sliding conditions and a wear tester which simulated the train motion under laboratory conditions, respectively. Worn surfaces and wear debris of PMPCS were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometer, and the wear mechanism was discussed. It has been found that the thermal stability of the PI/YM is superior to that of the YM under the same testing conditions. The results also showed that PI/YM-PMPCS had superior wear resistance than that of YM-PMPCS at elevated temperature and with electrical current. At elevated temperature, the wear mechanism of tribological pair evolved from adhesive wear to oxidative wear with mild delamination wear. Arc erosion wear, oxidative wear, and adhesive wear were the dominant mechanisms of tribological pair during the electrical wearing process.     

Mechanics of roll edge contact in cold rolling of thin strip

Simulation of cold rolling of thin strip due to roll edge contact with oil lubrication was performed successfully using a developed influence function method. Roll edge contact and related surface roughness was discussed in this paper. The calculated rolling force, intermediate force and work roll edge contact force increase significantly when the reduction increases. The strip profile becomes poor with a higher reduction, and the calculated rolling forces are consistent with the measured values. A modified edge shape of work roll determined from the roll edge contact length and roll edge flattening value is helpful to reduce the work roll edge wear and to extend the work roll life. Surface roughness and asperity of the rolled strip are characterized by surface profilometer and atomic force microscope. The research shows that the surface roughness reduces with a higher reduction or rolling speed. The effect of the strip width on surface roughness is not significant.     

A procedure for the wear prediction of collector strip and contact wire in pantograph–catenary system

The effects of friction and electrical phenomena like arcing and sparking govern the wear rate in the sliding contact between the contact wire and the collector strip, these two effects are mutually interconnected in a complex manner. A means of investigating the wear of the collector strip and the contact wire is to carry out laboratory tests that allow to perform comparative tests between different material combinations and to establish the dependence on the main parameters such as sliding speed, contact force and current intensity. A problem to be considered in the application of the laboratory test results is their extrapolation to the real operating conditions, in order to assess the effective benefit among different solutions. In this paper, a procedure that combines a wear model for the contact between collector strip and contact wire with the simulation of the dynamic interaction between pantograph and catenary is proposed. The adopted wear model is based on the wear map concept, including the effect of electrical current flow, and it is tuned by means of the results obtained on laboratory test rig.The dependence of the electrical contact resistance on the contact force between each contact strip of the pantograph and the contact wire of the overhead line is considered and the corresponding electrical current on each of the two collectors of the pantograph is evaluated. Instantaneous values of contact forces and electrical current are then fed into the wear model and the amount of the wear of the collector strips and of the contact wire along the overhead line is calculated, generating an irregular profile of the contact wire.The proposed procedure is applied to two cases: in the first one the wear of the contact wire using copper collector strips and graphite collector strips for dc line are compared. In the second one, the consequence of the variation of the mechanical tension of the contact wire on the wear levels is predicted.     

Deformation component of friction force in a wavy elastic contact subjected to wear

The problem of frictional interaction between a wavy punch subjected to wear and an elastic strip is discussed. The contact of the punch and strip is assumed to cover the whole its lengths (complete contact). An analytic solution of the problem is presented, based on which the formula for the deformation component of the friction force is derived. Analysis of this formula enables us to represent visually certain features of the deformation component of the friction force, particularly in relation to its behavior in time.     

Relating contact conditions to abrasive wear

Damage caused by particles within rolling/sliding contacts can severely reduce the operational life of machinery such as roller bearings, gears and pumps.Abrasive wear of spherical roller thrust bearings has been studied using a stylus apparatus and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Both a standard bearing and a bearing with rollers coated with metal mixed amorphous carbon (Me-C:H) were studied. The SEM measurements were performed systematically across the contact surfaces so that surfaces with gradually different contact situations could be examined. These measurements were compared to the measured wear depth of the components of the roller bearing. Also, the calculated contact conditions in terms of creep, contact size and surface separation have been related to the observed wear pattern at various locations.To attempt to understand the wear behaviour of the bearing with coated rollers, the coating as well as the material content of the surfaces were examined using both SEM and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS). This revealed that the coating did not flake off but rather was scratched off.It is possible to link the abrasive wear behaviour to the contact conditions. It is crucial to understand this relationship when building a simulation model of abrasive wear.     

Temperature in a twin-disc wheel/rail contact simulation

Temperature in a machine element contact is critical in determining wear mechanisms and the conditions at which wear transitions occur. Calculations have shown that the temperature in a wheel/rail contact under severe contact conditions may lead to a transition from severe wear to catastrophic wear. Such high lateral loads and slips can occur in wheel flange contact at railway track curves.The aim of this work was to use a thermal camera to measure the temperatures in a twin-disc simulation of a wheel/rail contact. Disc body and contact temperatures were studied for a number of different contact conditions. Disc emissivity values were determined using an independent calibration test.Measured temperatures were compared with those derived using analytical models which equate frictional heat generated in the contact with heat dissipation due to conduction, convection and radiation. Good correlation was found between the experimental and analytical results. This is despite the fact that its emissivity values were assumed constant throughout the test.