Internet administration of self-report measures commonly used in research on social anxiety disorder: A psychometric evaluation

The Internet has become increasingly popular as a way to administer self-report questionnaires, especially in the field of Internet delivered psychological treatments. Collecting questionnaire data over the Internet has advantages, such as ease of administration, and automated scoring. However, psychometric properties cannot be assumed to be identical to the paper-and-pencil versions. The aim of this study was to test the equivalence of paper-and-pencil and Internet administered versions of self-report questionnaires used in social phobia research. We analyzed data from two trials in which samples were recruited in a similar manner. One sample (N = 64) completed the paper-and-pencil version of questionnaires and the second sample (N = 57) completed the same measures online. We included the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale-self-assessment (LSAS-SR), the Social Interaction and Anxiety Scale (SIAS), and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) as measures of social anxiety. Also included were the Montgomery Åsberg Depression Rating Scale-self-assessment (MADRS-S), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and the Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI). Results showed equivalent psychometric properties across administration formats. Cronbach’s α ranged between 0.77 and 0.94. There was an indication of a somewhat higher construct validity when participants filled out questionnaires using paper-and-pencil. We conclude that the LSAS-SR, SIAS, and SPS can be administered via the Internet with maintained psychometric properties.     

Beyond search and communication: Development and validation of the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS)

Internet self-efficacy is a pivotal construct for understanding a wide range of online activities. Human activity has been developing in new directions along with the evolution of the Internet over the last few decades. A self-efficacy measure which might appropriately reflect these changes is still lacking in the literature. To address this research gap, the current study developed the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS) and tested its validity and reliability. A sample of 349 undergraduate students completed an assessment battery including the ISS. A 17-item five-factor model was extracted from an EFA. Using a CFA, the 17-item five-factor model obtained from the EFA was cross-validated and the results revealed acceptable model fits where χ²(df = 107) = 198.987, NFI = .918, CFI = .960, and RMESA = .067 (95% C.I.; 052, .081). Also, the ISS showed good convergent validity, evidenced by the significant relationships with Internet outcome expectancy and Internet anxiety.     

Attitudinal and experiential predictors of technological expertise

This study sought to clarify which computer and Internet skills and experiences differentiate technological expertise and to identify predictors of this expertise. Two hundred and fifty-eight incoming university students were surveyed on Internet and computer experiences, skills, and attitudes. Six specific Internet and computer uses that differentiate technological expertise were identified based on frequency of use. Males and those who own computers had greater technological expertise. Factor analyses identified two skill factors (Internet skills, Computer/Math skills), three experience factors (Internet, Computer, Recreational Use of Internet), five attitude factors (Importance of Internet and computer knowledge, Computer aversive, Internet and computer comfort/competency, Internet and computer overuse, Technology aversive). These factors as well as gender, computer ownership, and weekly computer and Internet use were entered as independent variables in a general linear model (GLM) which was then used to determine which factors affected technological expertise. The overall GLM was significant (R² = .414, F = 5.85, p < .001). Internet and computer skills and computer abuse were the strongest predictors of technological expertise. Weekly Internet use, Internet and computer comfort/competency also were predictors, and gender was almost significant (p = .056) as a predictor. Neither computer ownership nor other Internet and computer attitudes were significant predictors.     

Understanding adolescents’ problematic Internet use from a social/cognitive and addiction research framework

As Internet usage has become more prevalent among youth, so too has problematic Internet use. Despite the critical role of emotion regulation in the development of adolescents’ behaviors and the role of parenting interactions on their children’s behaviors, little research has examined these links with reference to problematic and addictive Internet use for adolescents. The main goal of this study was to examine these links, based on a sample of 525 high school students (368 males; M = 15.33 years, SD = 0.47) from a predominantly middle and lower-middle socioeconomic community in Seoul, Korea. Results from structural equation modeling revealed that students’ difficulties in emotion regulation was a mediating variable between students’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting behaviors and the students’ Internet use. The findings substantiate the importance of conceptualizing addiction from a social/cognitive theoretical framework and the notion that adolescence is the onset period for many addictive behaviors and so more proactive attention needs to be given to reducing these early negative behaviors. Based on these results, interventions designed to enhance adolescents’ emotion regulatory abilities have the likelihood to mitigate problematic and even addictive Internet use among youth.     

Stressful life events and problematic Internet use by adolescent females and males: A mediated moderation model

In a sample of 660 adolescents (M age = 14.14 years; 55% females), this study examined a mediated moderation model in which temperamental effortful control and sensation seeking moderated the relationship between stressful life events and problematic Internet use (PIU), and this moderating effect was mediated by maladaptive cognitions. Findings revealed that effortful control buffered the risk of stressful life events for females’ PIU, and this effect was mediated through maladaptive cognitions. The risk-buffering effect of effortful control for males’ PIU was not significant, although it buffered the risk of maladaptive cognitions for PIU. The risk-enhancing effect of sensation seeking was not significant in both female and male adolescents. In addition, males scored higher on risks but lower on protective factors of PIU than females, which explain the gender difference in PIU. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

Construct validation of the Use, Abuse and Dependence on the Internet inventory

This study aims to validate the structure of the Use, Abuse and Dependence on the Internet (UADI) inventory on a sample of 1056 high school (n = 820) and university (n = 236) students. In particular, we performed exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on sub-samples (cross-validation), tested the construct convergent validity, and tested correlations of UADI dimensions with HEXACO personality inventory (HEXACO-PI, where HEXACO stands for the six assessed dimensions: Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness to experience) and external criteria (daytime internet use, etc.). Five dimensions (Compensatory Escape, Dissociation, Real Life Impact, Experience Making and Addiction) were best captured by a second-order factor structure with a factor reflecting Real Life Impact and Dependence saturated by the other four dimensions. This latter factor converged with other traditional measures of internet dependence. The results are discussed in light of the relationships with validity criteria.     

Proficiency and attitudes toward information technologies’ use in psychology undergraduates

In this study we had two aims: first, to evaluate the self-reported proficient use of data analysis and information technologies in psychology undergraduates. Second, to investigate the relationship between their proficiency level and attitude toward the technology’s use for academic, social and personal activities. Two hundred students were asked to answer two short Likert scales which shown a high internal consistency (proficiency α = 0.93; attitudes α = 0.88) and a coherent factorial structure. They also were required to answer a semantic differential scale (α = 86) of whose bipolar adjectives evaluated the technologies’ use in their learning–teaching process. A regression analysis showed that an efficient e-information searching and e-downloading strategies as well as considering the active vs passive use of the technology can together predict (R² = .754) the usage of complex technology and abilities.     

Internet vs. paper and pencil administration of questionnaires commonly used in panic/agoraphobia research

The aim of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of Internet administered questionnaires used in panic research. Included were 494 people who had registered for an Internet-based treatment program for panic disorder (PD). Participants were randomly assigned to fill in the questionnaires either on the Internet or the paper-and-pencil versions, and then to fill in the same questionnaires again the next day using the other format. The questionnaires were the body sensations questionnaire [BSQ; Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Bright, P., & Gallagher, R. (1984). Assessment of fear of fear in agoraphobics: the body sensations questionnaire and the agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 1090–1097], agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire [ACQ; Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Bright, P., & Gallagher, R. (1984). Assessment of fear of fear in agoraphobics: the body sensations questionnaire and the agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 1090–1097], mobility inventory [MI; Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G., Jasin, S., Gracely, E. J., & Williams, C. (1985). The mobility inventory for agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 35–44], beck anxiety inventory [BAI; Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897], beck depression inventory II [Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory. Manual, Svensk version (Swedish version). Fagernes, Norway: Psykologiförlaget, AB], quality of life inventory [QOLI; Frisch, M. B., Cornell, J., Villanueva, M., & Retzlaff, P. J. (1992). Clinical validation of the quality of life inventory. A measure of life satisfaction for use in treatment planning and outcome assessment. Psychological Assessment, 4, 92–101], and montgomery Åsberg depression rating scale [MADRS; Svanborg, P., & Åsberg, M. (1994). A new self-rating scale for depression and anxiety states based on the comprehensive psychopathological rating scale. ACTA Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89, 21–28]. Results showed largely equivalent psychometric properties for the two administration formats (Cronbach’s α between 0.79 and 0.95). The results also showed high and significant correlations between the Internet and the paper-and-pencil versions. Analyses of order effects showed an interaction effect for the BSQ and the MI (subscale Accompanied), a main effect was identified for ACQ, MI-Alone, BAI and BDI II. However, in contrast to previous research, the Internet version did not consistently generate higher scores and effect sizes for the differences were generally low. Given the presence of an interaction effect, we recommend that the administration format should be stable in research across measurement points. Finally, the findings suggest that Internet versions of questionnaires used in PD research can be used with confidence.     

Revisiting the uncanny valley theory: Developing and validating an alternative to the Godspeed indices

Mori (1970) proposed a hypothetical graph describing a nonlinear relation between a character’s degree of human likeness and the emotional response of the human perceiver. However, the index construction of these variables could result in their strong correlation, thus preventing rated characters from being plotted accurately. Phase 1 of this study tested the indices of the Godspeed questionnaire as measures of humanlike characters. The results indicate significant and strong correlations among the relevant indices (Bartneck, Kuli?, Croft, & Zoghbi, 2009). Phase 2 of this study developed alternative indices with nonsignificant correlations (p > .05) between the proposed y-axis eeriness and x-axis perceived humanness (r = .02). The new humanness and eeriness indices facilitate plotting relations among rated characters of varying human likeness.     

Effects of disease and leader type on moderators in online support groups

This study examines the effects of illness (cancer and Parkinson’s [PD]) on three moderators, the expression of positive and negative emotions and cognitive mechanisms. Each illness makes its own unique demands on patients and may influence change mechanisms. Similarly, we are asking, what effects do the type of leadership have on mediators that have previously been linked to positive outcomes. Four types of groups were studied, professional, the wellness community (TWC) chat mixed cancer (N groups = 4) and TWC chat PD patient groups (N groups = 6). The two peer groups were bulletin boards for colorectal cancer (N groups = 1) and PD BBs (N groups = 6). The design was a 2×2, disease and leader type. Computer-based text analysis, the linguistic inquiry and word count assessed the dependent variables. The results of the Manova found that; disease is P = NS, leader type, P = .00, interaction, P = .00. The interaction between disease and leader type is statistically significant, indicating that disease in combination with whether the leader is a peer or professional effects the expression of emotions and cognitive mechanisms.     

Assessing Web interaction with recollection: Age-related and task-related differences

The current study examined how young (n = 26; mean = 22.31 years) and older Internet users (n = 24; mean = 64.54 years) performed when they had to select and recollect information displayed in Web pages. Content-oriented and navigation-oriented information-finding tasks were used during the study phase. At test, the method made use of two recognition paradigms designed to assess recollection and the nature of representations in memory: namely, the remember/know procedure and a forced-choice recognition procedure which made it possible to compare the retrieval of detailed (verbatim-based) and semantic (gist-based) representations. The evidence from both procedures suggested that remembering was less contextualised in older participants. Furthermore, the idea that content-oriented searches impose greater processing demands than navigation-oriented searches in Web pages was confirmed for both age groups. Interestingly, the older Internet users experienced more difficulties in finding targets in navigation-oriented searches than in content-oriented searches.     

The mediating effect of website quality on Internet searching behavior

The study investigates the mediating effect of website quality on Internet searching behavior. The research model incorporates three dimensions, namely (1) Internet attitudes of the Internet users, (2) website quality, including the system quality, service quality and information quality, and (3) Internet searching behavior demonstrated by the general population of Internet users. A survey instrument was used to gather data to exam the relationships in the proposed model. The collected online surveys (n = 856) are used to test the relationships among the three dimensions expressed in the proposed structural equation model. The results show that website quality has a mediating effect on Internet searching behavior. It is also discovered that there is significant correlation between Internet attitudes and website quality. This study contributes empirical data to the predominantly theoretical literature on Internet searching behavior in general and Internet attitudes and website quality in particular. It is, to a certain extent, common sense that website quality has a positive impact on Internet searching behavior. This paper takes an important step forward by detailing how website quality affects the Internet searching behavior via enhancing the effect of users’ Internet attitudes.     

Assessing tenth-grade students’ problem solving ability online in the area of Earth sciences

This study examined tenth-grade students’ (n = 263) problem solving ability (PSA) online through assessing students’ domain-specific knowledge (DSK) and reasoning skills (RS) in Earth sciences as well as their attitudes toward (AT) Earth sciences related topics in a secondary school of Taiwan. The students’ PSA was evaluated based on a previous model (Chang, C. Y. (2004, November 26–27). Trends in assessing student earth science problem solving ability: the importance of domain-specific knowledge and reasoning skills in earth sciences. Paper presented at the Seoul Conference for International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO), Seoul, Korea; Chang, C. Y., & Barufaldi, J. P. (submitted). Does problem solving = prior knowledge + reasoning skills in science? An exploratory study. Journal of Experimental Education; Chang, C. Y., & Weng, Y. H. (2002). An exploratory study on students’ problem-solving ability in earth science. International Journal of Science Education, 24(5), 441–452) which empirically established that students’ PSA is a composite of DSK, RS and AT subscales. Major findings are as follows: (a) The correlation coefficient among students’ DSK, RS and AT was relatively small, indicating that these subscales might have successfully represented different constructs of students’ PSA; (b) a significantly positive correlation existed between students’ PSA total scores and each subscale. It is, therefore, suggested that students’ PSA may be potentially assessed online by measuring their essential components in the area of Earth sciences.     

Perceived stress,sensation seeking,and college students’ abuse of the Internet

College students (n = 140) were examined to test whether sensation seeking and perceived stress would predict abuse of the Internet. Previous studies have found that disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and total sensation seeking scores were related to Internet abuse ( 9 and 30). Because stress has been documented to have a negative effect on students ( Pierceall & Keim, 2007), and may be linked to Internet use ( Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001), it was tested as a possible predictor of Internet abuse. This study also analyzed abuse of the Internet for sexual purposes, because sexuality is prevalent online, and college students are in an age of sexual exploration. Results of stepwise regression analyses revealed that disinhibition and total perceived stress were predictive of Internet abuse for sexual purposes, and perceived hopelessness and boredom susceptibility were predictive of Internet abuse for non-sexual purposes. Implications for students and Internet abuse are discussed.     

Examining the structure of the Internet Addiction Test in adolescents: A bifactor approach

Young’s (1998a) Internet Addiction Test (IAT) is one of the most commonly used measures of problematic Internet use. Although the instrument is being increasingly applied in research with adolescents, its measurement structure has not been systematically evaluated with pre-adult respondents. Because the results of previous factor-analytic studies with adults have been highly inconsistent, the present study applied both the traditional (simple-structure) and novel (bifactor) modeling approaches to derive the most optimal measurement structure of the IAT for adolescents. The results of exploratory and confirmatory analyses in a large Canadian sample of high-school students (N = 1948) converged on a bifactor model with a dominant global IA factor and two distinct sub-dimensions, each associated with a unique gender and problem behaviour profile. The discussion focuses on the implications of this bifactor structure for scale scoring and substantive theory on the nature and sources of individual differences in Internet addiction.     

Psychometric properties of internet administered versions of Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) and Depression,Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS)

A limited amount of research has been conducted on the psychometric properties of commonly used measures of anxious or depressive symptomatology for use on the internet, although such measures are seeing increasing use in internet administration for both clinical and research uses. A plethora of advantages exist for the use of internet administration of questionnaires, both in terms of assessment and the potential use in treatment monitoring as well as for research. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of two common clinical measures, the Penn State Worry Questionnaire and the. Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, in an internet administered format (N = 1138). Results suggest that these two measures may be used with confidence in an online format in terms of reliability and validity.     

Structure and function of maladaptive cognitions in Pathological Internet Use among Chinese adolescents

This study empirically investigated the structure and function of maladaptive cognitions related to Pathological Internet Use (PIU) among Chinese adolescents. To explore the structure of maladaptive cognitions, this study validated a Chinese Adolescents’ Maladaptive Cognitions Scale (CAMCS) with two samples of adolescents (n1 = 293 and n2 = 609). The results of the exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis revealed that CAMCS included three distinct factors, namely, “social comfort,” “distraction,” and “self-realization.” To examine the function of maladaptive cognitions, this study tested an updated cognitive-behavioral model in the third sample of 1059 adolescents. The results of structural equation model analyses verified both the direct effect of maladaptive cognitions on PIU and their mediating role in the relationships between distal factors (social anxiety and stressful life events) and PIU among Chinese adolescents. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings were discussed.     

Structural relationships among internal locus of control, institutional support, flow, and learner persistence in cyber universities

Although cyber education has become significant due to the development of appropriate information and communication technology, it has a problem as compared to traditional educational methods’ learning outcomes: a low rate of learner persistence. Learning outcomes in the cyber environment are complex phenomena affected by various factors, which need integrative comprehension regarding how the variables affect learning outcomes, for qualitative improvement. The current study aimed to establish a structural equation model explaining the causal relationships among internal locus of control, institutional support, flow, and learner persistence, and to examine the practical direct and indirect effects among them. Therefore, we conducted surveys on these variables, in order to examine the causal relationships among them. We received responses from 568 students at W Cyber University. The results indicate direct effects between learner’s internal locus of control and flow (ß = .273), between institutional support and flow (ß = .487), between internal locus of control and flow (ß = .333), and between flow and learner persistence (ß = .705). In addition, we found flow has an intermediating effect between internal locus of control and learner persistence and between institutional support and learner persistence. We propose strategies to raise learner persistence by improving the learner’s internal locus of control, institutional support, and flow based on these results.     

Absorption,dissociation, locus of control and presence in virtual reality

The present study aimed to explore the relationship between a number of psychological variables and a reported sense of presence in immersive virtual reality (IVR). It was hypothesised that participants’ scores on measures of absorption, dissociation, and external locus of control would be positively and significantly correlated with a measure of their sense of presence in IVR. A total of 64 people took part. Significant correlations were found between presence and dissociation (r = 0.403, p < 0.01), and presence and locus of control (r = 0.268, p < 0.05). However, the correlation between presence and absorption was not significant (r = −0.037, p = 0.386). The findings reported here suggest a complex interrelationship of psychological variables in relation to presence in IVR that warrants further research.     

The relationships between Turkish adolescents’ Internet addiction,their perceived social support and family activities

The main purpose of this research is to investigate the relationships between adolescents’ Internet addiction, their perceived social support and the activities carried out with the mother, father and family. The study designed with the survey model involved 166 adolescents who applied to Merkez Efendi Public Hospital Moris ?inasi Children’s Clinic, Child Development Polyclinic between February 2012 and June 2012 for problems specific to the period of adolescence. The age range of the participants was between 12 and 18 with the average age of 15.5. The findings of the study revealed a medium level of negative relationship (r = −.37) between perceived social support and Internet addiction. The adolescents spending time with their mothers had a higher level of perceived social support and a lower level of Internet addiction. Also, t-test was applied to see whether the adolescents’ perceived social support and Internet addiction differed with respect to the activities they carried out with the mother, father and family. It was found out that a number of activities (watching TV, eating meals, chatting, shopping and spending time outside) the adolescents carried out with their mother increased their level of perceived social support although the levels of Internet addiction did not differ with respect to the types of activities carried out only with the mother, only with the father and with the family.