Measuring modified glass bulb sprinkler thermal response in plunge and compartment fire experiments

Automatic fire sprinklers use a heat sensitive element such as a glass bulb or fusible link to respond to the heat from a fire. The response of commercial fire sprinkler glass bulbs has been extensively characterised in convection-dominated dry gas flows but in real fires there may be more factors that influence the heat transfer to the bulbs such as radiation from the fire or cooling from adjacent sprinkler sprays. The time of activation is the only indication of the thermal response of typical commercial fire sprinklers using glass bulbs to a fire, but direct temperature measurement using a modified proxy may provide a better understanding of how sprinklers respond in a complex environment. Modified glass bulbs have been created that allow a thermocouple to be inserted in the bulb for direct temperature measurement. In this paper, the thermal response of sprinklers with these modified bulbs has been observed in hot-air wind tunnel plunge experiments and full scale room fire experiments. At the time of activation the measured temperature of the modified sprinklers was found to be higher than the nominal activation temperature specification for the unmodified sprinklers. For the compartment fires, a thermal response model generally predicted longer sprinkler activation times based on ceiling jet temperature and velocity measurements than was observed experimentally.     

类岩石裂纹压剪流变断裂与亚临界扩展实验及破坏机制

进行双轴压缩条件下类岩石裂纹的压剪流变断裂实验,采用双扭试件的常位移松弛法对类岩石材料进行亚临界裂纹扩展与断裂韧度试验。在实验室尺度上证实了类岩石裂纹流变断裂现象的存在,并且得到了翼形裂纹–翼形裂纹贯通、翼形裂纹–原生裂纹贯通和翼形裂纹–翼形裂纹–剪切裂纹贯通的 3 种流变断裂贯通模式。类岩石材料的流变断裂是一种稳定的裂纹扩展,其本质原因是类岩石裂纹的亚临界扩展。以黏弹性断裂力学、流变力学和能量准则为理论依据,推导以应力强度因子、翼形裂纹长度和时间为内变量的相应势函数,建立多种破坏机制的 压剪岩石裂纹的流变断裂 判据和计算模型。 利用 流变断裂 实验对计算模型进行验证,得出裂纹流变 贯通的 理论时间与实验时间较为吻合,当翼形裂纹的扩展方向与最大压应力方向偏离较大时实验结果与理论模型误差较大。提出的计算方法和理论判据为研究岩石裂纹的流变断裂的细观机理及岩体工程流变破坏的宏观机制提供了一个新而实用的研究手段。     

爆破开挖对边坡岩体裂纹扩展的扰动机制

 爆破开挖是导致边坡节理岩体开裂甚至失稳的重要影响因素之一。基于断裂动力学理论,研究了爆破开挖对边坡岩体裂纹失稳扩展的扰动作用,分析了开挖扰动下地应力卸荷和爆炸应力波对裂纹尖端应力强度因子及其裂纹失稳扩展模式的影响。结果表明,爆炸应力波与地应力共同决定了边坡岩体裂纹的失稳扩展模式,初始地应力作用下边坡岩体裂纹的扩展模式主要为I-II压剪复合型;爆破开挖所产生的卸荷效应将改变初始地应力的状态,可使裂纹的扩展模式由I-II压剪复合型转变为I-II拉剪复合型,导致裂纹更容易失稳扩展,且卸荷程度越大,裂纹越容易失稳扩展;爆炸应力波的作用将增加岩体裂纹的失稳扩展风险。     

The Response Time of Different Sprinkler Glass Bulbs in a Residential Room Fire Scenario

The response time of fire sprinklers is essential for their performance, especially in applications where life safety protection is desired. The earlier the sprinkler activates, the smaller the size of the fire. Most commercial residential sprinklers are fitted with 3 mm, 68°C glass bulbs. However, thinner sprinkler glass bulbs with lower operating temperatures are available. The aim of this study was to determine the response time—and the corresponding heat release rate—of different glass bulbs in a residential room fire scenario. A series of tests were conducted inside a compartment measuring 3.66 m by 3.66 m having a ceiling height of 2.5 m. The compartment was either enclosed or had two walls removed to provide a more ventilated scenario. A propane gas burner was positioned at one of the corners. The mass flow rate of the gas was controlled such that either ‘slow’, ‘medium’ or ‘fast’ fire growth rate scenarios were simulated. In each test, nine Response Time Index (RTI) and operating temperature combinations were tested. Each test was replicated three times. In addition, two commercial fire detectors were tested. The results show that the fire is considerably smaller upon activation with a combination of a low RTI and a low operating temperature, as compared to the 3 mm, 68°C glass bulb typically used for residential sprinklers. The operating temperature proved to have a larger impact on the results than the RTI. The heat from the fire was typically detected by the fire detectors prior to the activation of the sprinkler glass bulbs, especially for the ‘slow’ and ‘medium’ fire growth rate scenarios.     

人字形切槽巴西圆盘岩石试样复合型断裂渐进过程数值模拟研究

人字形切槽巴西圆盘(CCNBD)岩石试样由于诸多优点,被国际岩石力学学会确定为岩石I型断裂韧度测试建议方法,并被众多学者应用于复合型(包括纯Ⅱ型)断裂试验研究。然而,CCNBD在复合型荷载下的渐进断裂机理尚未完全获悉,复合型断裂韧度测试基于的穿透直裂纹扩展假设并未严格评估,用于复合型断裂研究的合理性还未得到有效验证。采用细观损伤力学软件首次模拟得到CCNBD在复合型荷载下的渐进破坏过程。结果显示:裂纹不仅萌生于人字形韧带尖端,且易产生于切槽边缘,造成真实裂纹前缘为曲线形,与人字形切槽试样断裂韧度测试所基于的穿透直裂纹假设不符;裂纹并非沿着预制人字形韧带平面扩展到其根部,切槽边缘的破裂方向均朝向加载端,形成扭曲的三维翼形裂纹。数值模拟结果同物理实验对比,十分吻合。CCNBD的裂纹形态和渐进扩展规律不符合当前普遍采用的复合型测试原理,因此采用CCNBD试样进行岩石复合型(包括纯Ⅱ型)断裂韧度测试值得商榷。     

塔式起重机结构件安全寿命评估

根据断裂力学分析方法，确立塔机结构件焊接节点在循环荷载作用下缺陷及裂纹的扩展速率。分析计算缺陷对结构件节点疲劳强度和疲劳寿命的影响，确定某塔机结构件断裂事故的发生原因。     

Einsatz bruchmechanischer Methoden zur Bestimmung der Restnutzungsdauer von Windenergieanlagen

Application of fracture mechanics to the assessment of remaining life‐span of wind turbines. The assessment of cracks in steel tube towers of wind turbines by using models based on fracture mechanics is described. The presented concept can be used to determine the remaining life‐span of wind turbines. Maximum allowable crack dimensions are determined. Growth of the cracks up to these critical dimensions is investigated. For that purpose semi elliptic surface cracks are assumed in the welded joint between door frame and tower hull. Solutions for the stress intensity factor are used to describe the stress field at the crack tip. Input stresses are determined by linear‐elastic finite element calculation. The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) is used to determine critical crack dimensions. Crack growth is estimated considering stress ratio and s‐shaped dependency of crack growth rate on cyclic stress intensity.     

Modeling crack development in reinforced concrete structures under service loading

Reinforced and partially prestressed concrete structures are generally designed to allow cracking under service loading. Accurate modeling of crack formation and propagation at lower load levels is therefore important, especially in severe environments where structural durability is a concern. Here, a spring-network approach is used to study cracking in scaled models of reinforced concrete bridge piers, which are subjected to eccentric loading. An energetic fracture mechanics approach is used to model tension softening of developing cracks. Numerical results for cracking loads, crack opening profiles, and global load–displacement response agree well with experimentally measured values. In contrast, a brittle fracture model significantly underestimates the load level of crack formation, provides unrealistic crack opening profiles at low load levels, and indicates a mechanism for structural failure different from that witnessed in the test program.     

强随机分布裂隙介质的二维逾渗规律研究

首先以介质中裂隙的方向分布为基础,将孔隙裂隙双重介质分为弱随机分布裂隙介质、分组分布裂隙介质、强随机分布裂隙介质3类。然后将岩体的主要渗流通道——裂隙引入到逾渗研究理论中,以裂隙数量分布分形规律的基础,建立了强随机分布裂隙介质的逾渗模拟方法。通过数值计算的方法研究了强随机分布裂隙介质逾渗现象与逾渗规律,得到了以裂隙分形维数、裂隙数量分布初值、孔隙率为变量的逾渗阈值的数学表达式。     

温度荷载对裂纹扩展的影响

基于线弹性断裂力学，采用平面应变有限单元法，应用MSC NASTRANY有限元软件对含有裂缝的半刚性基层沥青混凝土路面在温度荷载作用下的应力状况进行了初步分析，得到了不同参数情形下的裂尖应力强度因子，研究结果对沥青路面结构设计具有一定的参考价值。     

Theoretical and numerical studies of crack initiation and propagation in rock masses under freezing pressure and far-field stress

Water-bearing rocks exposed to freezing temperature can be subjected to freezeethaw cycles leading tocrack initiation and propagation, which are the main causes of frost damage to rocks. Based on theGriffith theory of brittle fracture mechanics, the crack initiation criterion, propagation direction, andcrack length under freezing pressure and far-field stress are analyzed. Furthermore, a calculation methodis proposed for the stress intensity factor （SIF） of the crack tip under non-uniformly distributed freezingpressure. The formulae for the crack/fracture propagation direction and length of the wing crack underfreezing pressure are obtained, and the mechanism for coalescence of adjacent cracks is investigated.In addition, the necessary conditions for different coalescence modes of cracks are studied. Using thetopology theory, a new algorithm for frost crack propagation is proposed, which has the capability todefine the crack growth path and identify and update the cracked elements. A model that incorporatesmultiple cracks is built by ANSYS and then imported into FLAC3D. The SIFs are then calculated using aFISH procedure, and the growth path of the freezing cracks after several calculation steps is demonstratedusing the new algorithm. The proposed method can be applied to rocks containing fillings such asdetritus and slurry.
2014 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting byElsevier B.V. All rights reserved.     

Model scale tunnel fire tests with automatic sprinkler

The study focuses on the performance of an automatic sprinkler system in a model scale tunnel with longitudinal ventilation. A total of 28 tests were carried out in a 1:15 model scale tunnel using an automatic sprinkler system with glass bulbs. The maximum heat release rate, energy content and failure of the automatic sprinkler system were analysed. The results show that high ventilation rates and low water flow rates result in a failure of the automatic sprinkler system in a longitudinal ventilated tunnel fire. The main reason for the failure under the tested water flow rates was the effect of the longitudinal flow on the fire development and the hot gas flow close to the sprinklers. The fire development and the activation heat release rate of the first activated bulb are intimately related to the ventilation velocity. The fire spread to the neighbouring wood crib was investigated and a presentation of tests conducted using a deluge system are given.     

爆炸作用下夹层玻璃幕墙动力响应试验研究

为研究夹层玻璃在爆炸作用下的动力响应特征,对四边简支夹层玻璃面板进行了爆炸作用试验研究。试验按3个爆炸等级进行,研究了夹层玻璃面板在不同爆炸当量下的动力响应特征和破坏形态。试验表明：爆炸作用后冲击波的超压迅速升至峰值,并在数十毫秒内逐渐衰减,夹层玻璃的位移和应力随爆炸等级的增加而增大;在爆炸作用下,玻璃面板开始碎裂时裂纹在中心处呈环状,并由中心向四周均匀扩散,整个裂纹呈放射状展开,随着爆炸等级的增加,最终呈撕裂状破坏,钢化玻璃破碎为颗粒附着在PVB胶层上,没有发生飞溅。同时运用LS-DYNA有限元分析软件对试验模型进行了数值分析,分析所得玻璃面板的中心点最大位移与试验结果差别为38.7%,最大应力与试验结果的差别为20%,所得破坏模式与试验结果相吻合,表明数值模拟方法可靠。     

三维裂隙组扩展及贯通过程的试验研究

 采用一种透明性良好、在低温下呈脆性破裂特征的非饱和树脂材料,制作一些含三维裂隙组的试样(原生裂隙采用薄铝片进行模拟),研究单轴压缩条件下平行三维裂隙组的扩展与贯通过程。试验结果表明：试验早期阶段,各裂隙在端部均以包裹式翼裂纹起裂,并独立地扩展。随着各裂纹间相互作用的加强,会引起次生裂纹在预置裂隙端部附近反向扩展的现象,并形成一种新的断裂模式——包裹式反翼裂纹。最终,试样被包裹式翼裂纹与反翼裂纹主导的宏观破裂面所劈裂,并且裂纹在整个断裂过程中能够始终保持一种稳定的扩展。此外,裂隙组的分布方式将影响着三维裂纹的扩展参数,尤其是对裂纹初始扩展角的影响较大,使得包裹式翼裂纹的扩展角约偏转了10°。最后,讨论了三维裂隙组断裂的基本模式与断裂机制。     

A comparative study of fatigue inspection methods

Bridges are inspected, regularly or otherwise, for fatigue cracks using a variety of different methods. However, for all of these methods, inspection does not necessarily imply detection due to a number of factors including the inspector’s experience and the physically inherent limitations of the method. Consequently, traditional inspection methods do not have a limitless capacity for crack detection. As fatigue is a phenomenon involving crack growth over time, application of a particular method will have a time-dependent probability of detecting a crack. In this paper, crack growth, as this may be observed in a typical bridge fatigue detail, is quantified using fracture mechanics and the performance of four different inspection methods over time is compared in terms of their probability of detection. Although the results presented here are pertinent to the particular type of bridge detail and loading conditions, fracture mechanics may also be applied to a wide variety of different details in order to compare detection capabilities at different time instances.     

带有裂纹构件的旧钢桁桥的安全评估

采用断裂力学理论对老化钢桁桥的安全性能进行评估并对最终承载能力予以估算,已越来越多地被工程界接受。为了得到试样破坏时的最终承载能力,对三组I型试样进行三点弯曲试验,并推出断裂韧性KIC以及带有一定长度裂纹的构件允许应力[σ]的计算式。采用现场无损测试和磁探法来测定钢构件的裂纹情况。通过对现场测试结果与理论计算结果的比较,可以得出,采用断裂力学方法对带有裂纹构件的老化钢桁桥的安全性能进行评估的必要性。     

页岩微纳观断裂的原位观测

为了准确理解岩石微纳观裂纹起裂、扩展及演化规律,在带有拉伸加载装置的扫描电子显微镜下,对含有预制边缘裂纹的"拱形"页岩试样进行单轴拉伸试验,实时观测预制边缘裂纹尖端部位的微纳观裂纹起裂及扩展过程。在裂纹贯通后,继续原位观测主断裂裂纹边缘次级微纳观分叉裂纹的展布特征。取出样品后,在扫描电子显微镜下观测断口形貌,基于上述显微观测分析了页岩微纳观裂纹扩展的力学过程。研究表明:(1)采用含有预制裂纹的"拱形"试样更易于成功观测到页岩预制裂纹尖端微纳观裂纹的起裂及稳定扩展过程。(2)微纳观裂纹一般从预制裂纹尖端部位萌生、起裂,裂纹的横向伸展与纵向延伸相伴发生,在快速的脆性断裂前,经历短暂的裂纹稳定扩展过程。(3)微纳观次级分叉裂纹一般从主断裂裂纹边缘的天然微裂纹等弱结构面处起裂和扩展,最终在主断裂裂纹边缘区域止裂,或者前缘发生转向并与主断裂裂纹汇合。(4)主断裂面揭露出页岩矿物晶体内部的天然微孔洞和解理面、层片状矿物的层理面以及天然微裂纹,这有利于在微纳观尺度上形成微孔洞和微裂纹网络,为页岩气开采提供有效的微观通道。     

Fatigue and fracture simulation of welded bridge details through a bi-linear crack growth law

This paper deals with the application of a probabilistic fracture mechanics approach to predict the fatigue life of welded steel details in the presence of cracks under bridge spectrum loading. It is based on a recently proposed bi-linear relationship to model fatigue crack growth and incorporates a failure criterion to describe the interaction between fracture and plastic collapse. The formulation leading to the expected number of cycles to failure is first outlined, followed by a simple example on a butt-welded detail. Uncertainty modelling, especially on fatigue crack growth parameters, is undertaken with the aid of recently published data in support of the bi-linear crack growth relationship. Results pertaining to fatigue reliability and fatigue crack size evolution are presented using simulation with Latin Hypercube Sampling, and emphasis is placed on a comparison between linear and bi-linear crack growth models. The latter is found to lead to higher fatigue life estimates and significantly different crack size distributions, both of which have implications on inspection schemes for steel bridge components.     

碾压混凝土拱坝诱导缝开裂的等效应力准则研究

通过多组不同削弱度的深埋椭圆裂缝、深埋矩形裂缝、穿透裂缝三种形式的碾压混凝土试件单轴拉伸试验结果,建立深埋矩形裂缝碾压混凝土试件的应力强度因子的近似解析表达式,考虑尺寸效应得到碾压混凝土材料的断裂韧度。根据碾压混凝土拱坝诱导缝构造特点,分别将矩形诱导缝简化为修正穿透裂缝模型和修正深埋椭圆裂缝模型,假定为I型开裂,考虑相邻裂缝的影响,采用虚拟裂缝模型和线弹性断裂力学相结合的方法建立裂缝失稳扩展时的亚临界扩展量和等效断裂韧度的解析表达式,应用双K断裂准则,建立碾压混凝土拱坝诱导缝开裂的等效应力准则。并将此结果应用到三维非线性应力场仿真计算中,对沙牌碾压混凝土拱坝进行非线性开裂计算分析。     

A pore crack model for the mechanical behaviour of porous granular rocks in the brittle deformation regime

A model is developed for predicting and simulating the mechanical behaviour and failure mode of brittle porous granular rocks loaded in compression. It is based on a fracture mechanics analysis applied to cracks emanating from the surface of cylindrical pores in two-dimensional, which is well suited to the microstructure of such rocks. It is also consistent with the usual experimental procedure used for biaxial compression tests since the numerical scheme is implemented under the assumption of imposed axial strain. The model takes into account interactions between neighbouring cracks, which grow when their stress intensity factor reaches the fracture toughness of the rock. The simulation of crack growth from cylindrical holes, associated with a failure criterion based on the coalescence of interacting cracks, allows one to calculate the critical stress at rupture and to derive theoretical stress–strain curves.The present model is then used to compare theoretical results with laboratory data obtained on four sandstones with porosity ranging between 13% and 25.5% which were deformed under conventional triaxial compression conditions at confining pressures between 0 and 35 MPa. The comparison shows that by using a small number of parameters (pore size, pore density, fracture toughness, and elastic moduli), the model is able to predict the rock behaviour during the compression tests and the stress level at rupture in a quite accurate way, when the microstructural parameters introduced are consistent with the observations.