Equivalent circuit modeling of discharge current injected in contact with an ESD‐gun

The transient electromagnetic (EM) fields caused by an electrostatic discharge (ESD) have broadband frequency spectra, which cause serious failure to high‐tech information equipment. From this perspective, ESD testing for the EM immunity of the equipment is specified by IEC 61000‐4‐2, in which the detailed waveform of the discharge current injected onto the IEC recommended Pellegrini target in contact with an ESD‐gun is prescribed for calibration. However, the factors for determining the current waveform remain unclear, and thus the IEC prescribed current waveform is unlikely to be injected into actual equipment. In this study, based on the structure of an ESD‐gun, an equivalent circuit modeling is proposed for analyzing the discharge current injected onto a 50‐Ω SMA connector instead of the IEC target that has frequency‐dependent transmission characteristics. Its validity is confirmed by comparing the calculated current waveform with the measured result. The proposed circuit modeling is also validated from measurement of the discharge current injected onto a transmission line by the ESD‐gun. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 149(1): 8–14, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.10367     

Characteristic measurement of discharge current injected by the air discharge of an ESD gun onto a ground

An immunity testing method for electrostatic discharge (ESD) is being specified in IEC 61000‐4‐2, in which the contact discharge of an ESD gun is being normally specified. Air discharge testing is known to be a severe immunity test compared to contact discharge testing, while the discharge current injected is not well reproduced. Grasping the behavior of the current injected by the air discharge would be helpful in establishing the worst‐case ESD immunity testing. We previously measured the discharge currents for air discharge testing onto the IEC‐recommended current transducer with a commercially available ESD gun, and showed that there exists a specific relationship of Ip·tr^ξ/V_c=constant (ξ=0.75), between rise time tr and current peak Ip. The current transducer, however, has a frequency‐dependent transfer impedance which should affect the measured current waveform. In this study, we investigated whether the above‐mentioned specific relationship can be obtained for air discharge of an ESD gun onto a ground that assumes a metal enclosure of electronic equipment under test. A method was presented for estimating the discharge current from simultaneously measured magnetic fields with two magnetic field probes regardless of the distance between the gun discharge‐point and the probe position. This method was validated for contact discharge of an ESD gun to an SMA connector. With this method, we estimated the discharge currents injected onto a ground for air discharge testing of an ESD gun with intentionally fast and slow approaches. As a result, we could confirm a specific relationship between rise time tr and current peak Ip of Ip·tr^ξ/V_c=constant with ξ=0.57 independent of charge voltages and gun approaches. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 158(4): 51– 59, 2007; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.20454     

Variations in discharge current waveforms and their power spectra injected from contact discharges of ESD‐gun with different arrangements

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has prescribed an immunity test (IEC61000‐4‐2) of electronic equipment against electrostatic discharges (ESDs), in which a discharge current to be injected onto equipment under test is specified. As for the waveform, however, not the whole waveform but only the rise time, the first peak, and the current amplitudes at 30 and 60 ns are given in the time domain together with their uncertainties, which are required to check on the condition that an ESD generator (ESD‐gun) shall be arranged vertically to an IEC‐recommended calibration target and its earth return wire is kept away as far as possible from a vertical ground plane (IEC standard arrangement). In this study, to clarify how arrangements of an ESD‐gun and its earth return wire affect discharge currents, we measured discharge current waveforms for contact discharges of an ESD‐gun onto an IEC calibration target with respect to various inclinations of the ESD‐gun and arrangements of its earth return wire, and also calculated their current power spectra normalized to that of the discharge current for the IEC standard arrangement. As a result, we found that inclinations of the ESD gun affect the first peak current, which increases current power spectra by 14 dB at frequencies over 300 MHz, and that arrangements of the return wire influence the current waveforms between the first and second peaks, which provides variations in power spectra by ±12 dB in the frequency range from 10 MHz to 200 MHz. This finding suggests that arrangements of an ESD‐gun and its earth return wire are likely to cause different immunity test results. It was also found that in comparison with measured discharge currents for the standard arrangement, the calculated waveform of a discharge current from a formula, which has been included in the recent standard, has a more gentle falling waveform, and produces power spectra of +15 dB in the frequency range from 10 MHz to 200 MHz and –12 dB at frequencies over 300 MHz. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 180(1): 9–14, 2012; Published online in Wiley Online Library ( wileyonlinelibrary.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.21270     

对空气式静电放电的研究

为改善空气放电模拟方法,用静电放电模拟测试装置研究了IEC标准规定的空气式静电放电的放电特性。通过手动方式使充电后的放电电极快速靠近电流靶获得空气静电放电事件,放电电压具有2~20 kV较宽范围的电压电平和正负电压极性。利用Agilent数字存储示波器测量了空气静电放电放电电流的上升时间、峰值以及耦合到自制的金属半圆环上的峰-峰值电压,并记录了放电电流和耦合电压的波形。通过分析和比较测量结果研究了测量参数随放电电平的变化趋势。空气放电电流的特性与静电放电抗扰度试验标准IEC 61000-4-2对接触式放电的规定类似,耦合电压与放电电压之间没有直接的相关性。实验表明在一定电压范围、电极速度可控时可能获得空气放电的重复性。     

聚合物ESD抑制器抑制特性的测试方法

为了消除静电放电时产生的辐射场对静电放电抑制器测试结果的影响,基于法拉第笼的屏蔽效应、依据国际电工委员会IEC61000-4-2标准和国军标GJB911-1990,利用静电放电模拟器和静电放电电流波形测试装置等设备,测试了某型号聚合物静电放电抑制器的抑制特性。测试结果表明,采用IEC61000-4-2标准规定的电流靶结合法拉第笼的方法,测试静电放电时通过抑制器的电流,能够保证电流波形不失真;而加在抑制器两端的电压,须使用有效带宽足够宽的电压探头配合示波器来测量,同时应尽可能消除静电放电时产生的辐射场对电压探头的影响。     

ESD电流的解析表达式与数值解

分析IEC6100042静电放电(ESD)电流波形典型拟合解析表达式表明,这种由有限点拟合曲线的纯数学方式存在拟合的多样性,无可依据的物理基础。因而根据ESD物理特性提出了一种通过数值计算等效电路模型获得ESD电流数值解的方法,由该方法算出的电流峰值、上升时间、i30ns、i60ns等关键参数与IEC610042电流波形参数的相对误差的最大值均<1.6‰,为ESD辐射电磁场研究提供了有效的手段。     

静电放电刷电晕脉冲电流的测试与分析

为研究电晕放电脉冲电流的特性,提出了一种电晕脉冲电流模拟测试方法,选用直流高压发生器、高采样率的数字存储示波器Teck7404B和高频电流探头TA1搭建了某静电放电刷电晕脉冲电流的测试回路。分析测试静电放电刷的正负电晕脉冲电流波形及其特征的结果表明,正负电晕脉冲电流具有明显的极性效应,正电晕电流比负电晕有更长的上升沿和脉冲宽度,电流幅值达mA级。该研究结果为进一步研究空中飞行物体的电晕放电电磁辐射的特征提供了实验依据,根据放电刷脉冲电流特征,可估算其电晕放电电磁辐射能量。     

Effect of Moving Speed of Charged Metallic Spherical Electrode on Electrostatic Discharge

In this investigation, the nature of the electrostatic discharge (ESD) that occurs when a charged object moves toward a stationary grounded object is experimentally clarified. The spark lengths, discharge currents, and induced voltages in a magnetic probe were measured when a charged metallic spherical electrode connected to a 422 pF capacitor approached a stationary grounded object, which was the current target, for different moving speeds of the charged metallic spherical electrode in a range of 1 mm/s to 100 mm/s. The charge voltages of the capacitor were +6.5 kV and +10 kV. Based on the results, the average gap length shortened with the speed of the spherical electrode. The average peak values of the discharge current and the induced voltage were likely to increase with the speed of the spherical electrode. The average rise times of the discharge current and the induced voltage were likely to drop with the speed of the spherical electrode. The relation between the spark length and the discharge current due to the ESD can be explained qualitatively by using an equation derived from the spark resistance formula proposed by Rompe and Weizel.     

Calculation of sudden three‐phase short‐circuit current of turbine generators by 3D magnetic field analysis

Sudden three‐phase short‐circuit current of a turbine generator was calculated by a three‐dimensional magnetic field analysis. That analysis takes into account the rotation, magnetic saturation, and eddy current at a rotor part. To compare test results and calculated results, a method was proposed for short‐circuit phase estimation at sudden three‐phase short‐circuit test by line voltage waveform of the test results. The calculated results of short‐circuit current waveform are in good agreement with the test results. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 153(1): 54–62, 2005; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.20110     

空气式静电放电的实验分析

针对国际电工委员会标准IEC 61000-4-2静电放电抗扰度试验方法存在的问题,对空气式静电放电进行实验研究.利用新型静电放电(ESD)模拟测试系统,在较宽范围的电压电平下,用数字存储示波器对放电电流的上升时间、峰值、自制金属半圆环天线上的耦合电压峰一峰值进行测量.测量结果的分析表明:不同空气湿度下的ESD特性存在着...     

IEC61000-4-2规定的实验平台与方法的局限性

研究了静电放电抗扰度试验,发现满足IEC6100042标准规定的不同的ESD模拟器对同一试验对象所得实验结果不同;放电电流导数和模拟器内部开关继电器的电磁辐射对实验结果有很大影响。分析认为,造成上述问题的原因之一是IEC标准对电流校验波形的规定不够严格,未具体规定空气放电方式,使实验结果与实际不符。最后建议标准应规定电流导数波形参数,限制电流波形的振荡;必要时应对模拟器开关采取屏蔽措施,限制模拟器开关的辐射;应进一步研究空气放电的特点,建立符合实际应用需要的实验平台。     

空气式静电放电抗扰度试验方法

静电放电(electrostatic discharge,ESD)抗扰度试验作为电磁兼容(EMC)试验的一项重要内容,其执行标准IEC 61000-4-2还存在诸多问题,尤其是空气式ESD的重复性问题。为此,基于动能-势能转换原理,采用导轨带动电极运动结构和步进电机装置,用近似单摆结构的试验方法,设计和研制了2种新的ESD抗扰度试验平台,实现了空气式ESD抗扰度试验中对放电电极接近速度的准确控制。利用这2种ESD抗扰度试验平台对空气式ESD的重复性进行了研究。试验结果表明,ESD参数如放电电流峰值、接近速度和放电电压具有很好的规律性,并且在一定的放电电压和接近速度下,空气式ESD也可以具有较好的重复性。在相同放电电压和接近速度下,利用第2种ESD抗扰度试验平台得到的放电电流峰值和上升时间的变异系数均小于利用第1种ESD抗扰度试验平台得到的放电电流峰值和上升时间的变异系数,因此第2种单摆式ESD抗扰度试验平台的重复性要好于第1种ESD抗扰度试验平台的重复性。     

ESD辐射场的计算及对传输线的耦合研究

为分析静电放电的辐射场及其对传输线与负载终端的影响,采用了一种基于脉冲函数的静电放电电流波形解析表达式计算了静电放电电磁脉冲辐射场并给出了近场和远场波形。结果表明放电电场包括由初始电荷引起的静电场和由放电电流引起的辐射场,在放电电极附近,静电场远大于辐射场,但静电场随空间距离衰减得很快,在远区场主要由放电电流引起的辐射场。利用传输线理论建立静电放电场对电长导线的耦合计算模型得出了静电放电辐射场在线上的感应电压和感应电流计算方程。     

大气压空气中同轴介质阻挡放电微放电特性

为了更好的利用和研究介质阻挡放电技术,探讨了研究较少的同轴介质阻挡等离子体反应器的放电特性。因该类反应器2个介质阻挡层结构不一致,导致微放电行为在高频高压电源的正弦波电压的正、负半周内特点不同。研究从其放电的等效电路模型,流注放电击穿机理,以及在大气压空气中的放电实验等方面进行。结果表明,大气压下放电间隙8mm反应器时,放电电流波形在外加电源电压的正负半周期内不对称;分别呈现出明显的“似辉光放电”和“丝状放电”特点,单个微放电电流脉冲宽度约50ns,与外加电源电压极性和频率无关。     

Thermal behavior of small lithium‐ion secondary battery during rapid charge and discharge cycles

The secondary batteries for an electric vehicle (EV) generate much heat during rapid charge and discharge cycles above the rated condition, when the EV starts quickly consuming the battery power and stops suddenly recovering the inertia energy. During rapid charge and discharge cycles, the cell temperature rises significantly and may exceed the allowable temperature. We calculated the temperature rise of a small lithium‐ion secondary battery during rapid charge and discharge cycles using our battery thermal behavior model, and confirmed its validity during discharge cycle at current smaller than the discharge rate of 1C. The heat source factors were measured by the methods described in our previous study, because the present batteries have been improved in their performance and have low overpotential resistance. The battery heat capacity was measured by a twin‐type heat conduction calorimeter, and determined to be a linear function of temperature. Further, the heat transfer coefficient was measured again precisely by the method described in our previous study, and was arranged as a function of cell and ambient temperatures. The calculated temperature by our battery thermal behavior model using these measured data agrees well with the cell temperature measured by thermocouple. Therefore, we can confirm the validity of this model again during rapid charge and discharge cycles. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 157(3): 17–25, 2006; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.20249 Copyright © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Physics‐based model of lithium‐ion batteries running on a circuit simulator

The authors developed a physics‐based equivalent circuit model of a lithium‐ion battery (LIB) whose parameters are continually updated, reflecting the theoretical calculation results of the Butler‐Volmer equation, diffusion equations of the lithium‐ion and lithium, and Nernst equations of the liquid and solid phases. The developed model was applied to the charge/discharge simulations of an LIB, and the experimental and simulated results of constant current discharges and pulsed‐charge/discharge were found to be in excellent agreement. In particular, using the developed model, analyzing transient responses of the LIB derived from the transition of the electric double layer charging to the electrode reaction is possible. These results demonstrate that the electrochemical performance of an LIB can be calculated on a circuit simulator using the developed model.     

Fast electrostatic discharges between a charged thin dielectricfilm and a spherical electrode with or without dielectric coating

Short-gap (less than 1 mm) electrostatic discharge (ESD) between a charged thin dielectric film on an earthed-plate electrode and a spherical electrode, connected to the plate, with or without an uncharged thin dielectric film coating was observed. Discharge-current waveform, discharge gap length, current rise time, discharging photograph, and current peak value were recorded by the authors' measuring system. The initial charge supply effects by irradiation of β-ray or ultraviolet light were found to be not highly apparent; that is, the reproducibility of ESD experiments was not greatly improved. Surface-charge-polarity dependence of surface ESD between charged and uncharged dielectric films decreases with increase of the film thickness. The discharge gap length of ESD with a 1.5 μm uncharged film coating on the spherical electrode decrease to 50 or 70% compared with that between a charged film and a bare spherical metal electrode. Peak current and transferred charge value of ESD also decrease to roughly one-third of that between the film and the spherical electrode     

基于PLC的静电放电试验系统的设计

设计了基于可编程控制器(PLC)的静电放电实验系统,对静电保护器件压敏电阻进行静电放电自动测试。首先根据IEC61000-4-2标准,设计静电放电发生源回路,选择可控放电频率的转盘式放电开关和具有纳秒级响应时间和集肤效应小的鼠笼式分流器。其次设计由工控机、示波器、PLC、触摸屏等组成的控制系统,开发相应的控制软件及数据处理系统,实现静电放电自动测试。最后选用不同等级的压敏电阻作为测试对象,对测试装置进行实验验证,结果表明,研究开发的静电放电自动测试装置可以满足压敏电阻静电放电测试的要求,对压敏电阻静电防护的研究具有重要意义。     

静电放电近区辐射电场的时域测试与实验分析

为研究静电放电近区辐射电场的时域测试技术及其时频域特征,利用2种不同的测试方法分别对接触式和空气式静电放电(ESD)产生的近区辐射电场进行了测试,并对实测结果进行了对比分析。结果表明,具有微分特性的测试系统对ESD辐射电场信号中的低频分量衰减严重,使得其实测波形中的频谱能量主要分布在较高频段,在时域上表现为单个或一系列尖脉冲形式,且其幅值与被测辐射场的幅值及其前沿上升/下降时间均有关,由此得到的分析结果无法真实反映被测辐射场的时频域特征;而自行研制的光纤传输式瞬态电场测试系统对ESD辐射电场中的大部分频率分量均具有自积分特性,利用该测试方法实测得到的ESD辐射电场时域波形能直接反映其时、频域特征,更适合用于ESD辐射电场的时域测试。     

人体-金属模型静电放电电流波形小波去噪

为提高静电放电能量耦合模型的精度,使用小波收缩去噪法对采集到的人体-金属模型静电放电电流波形进行处理。使用脉冲函数仿真人体-金属模型的静电放电电流波形,并叠加高斯白噪声模拟真实放电情况。采用去噪后信号的信噪比作为去噪效果优劣的依据,分析得知,分解层数选取对去噪效果有重大影响。根据仿真得出的结论指导对实测电流波形的去噪,结果表明,去噪效果良好。