基于损伤存在概率成像方法的复合材料结构损伤识别

基于小波分析理论和概率统计原理,提出一种损伤存在概率成像方法,对复合材料结构进行在线的健康监测。首先对结构损伤前后Lamb信号进行比较,提取信号的能量特征差异系数,作为损伤指标;然后用概率统计方法判断该损伤指标是由损伤引起的还是因环境变化造成的;最后用成像算法给出存在概率图像识别损伤。对复合材料板结构进行实验验证该方法的可行性,具有一定的实际工程应用价值。     

Damage classification in carbon fibre composites using acoustic emission: A comparison of three techniques

Classifying the type of damage occurring within a structure using a structural health monitoring system can allow the end user to assess what kind of repairs, if any, that a component requires. This paper investigates the use of acoustic emission (AE) to locate and classify the type of damage occurring in a composite, carbon fibre panel during buckling. The damage was first located using a bespoke location algorithm developed at Cardiff University, called delta-T mapping. Signals identified as coming from the regions of damage were then analysed using three AE classification techniques; Artificial Neural Network (ANN) analysis, Unsupervised Waveform Clustering (UWC) and corrected Measured Amplitude Ratio (MAR). A comparison of results yielded by these techniques shows a strong agreement regarding the nature of the damage present in the panel, with the signals assigned to two different damage mechanisms, believed to be delamination and matrix cracking. Ultrasonic C-scan images and a digital image correlation (DIC) analysis of the buckled panel were used as validation. MAR’s ability to reveal the orientation of recorded signals greatly assisted the identification of the delamination region, however, ANN and UWC have the ability to group signals into several different classes, which would prove useful in instances where several damage mechanisms were generated. Combining each technique’s individual merits in a multi-technique analysis dramatically improved the reliability of the AE investigation and it is thought that this cross-correlation between techniques will also be the key to developing a reliable SHM system.     

复合材料加筋壁板损伤识别的概率成像方法

由于不需要超声导波的波速和传播时间,损伤概率成像方法特别适合于复合材料结构的损伤识别。但是其损伤概率分布函数是一种不精确的分布概率,会造成损伤定位精度的降低,从而会影响其在实际工程结构中的应用。为了提高其损伤定位精度,提出了一种改进的损伤概率成像方法。该方法通过利用损伤因子与损伤距离激励-传感通道直达路径的相对距离的关系,对损伤概率成像方法的损伤概率分布函数进行了改进。通过对复合材料加筋壁板上不同位置损伤的识别,对所提方法的有效性进行了验证。实验结果表明,该方法不仅能对复合材料加筋壁板的单损伤进行准确定位,而且能对两个损伤进行有效识别。     

基于代理模型的复合材料加筋壁板分层损伤定量监测方法

通过建立损伤指数与分层损伤参数间的定量关系,对复合材料加筋壁板分层损伤进行准确定量监测,提出了一种基于代理模型的分层损伤定量监测方法。该方法包括代理模型的建立和逆求解两个过程,通过插值拟合方法建立表征分层损伤参数与损伤指数间定量关系的多项式代理模型;采用损伤概率成像算法获得相对距离和损伤指数,将其代入代理模型中,得到所对应的分层损伤面积;实现对分层损伤进行定量评估的目的。通过一个复合材料加筋壁板分层损伤的定量监测实验,对所提方法的有效性进行了验证。结果表明:基于代理模型的复合材料分层损伤定量监测方法可以实现对分层损伤位置的准确定位,定位误差低于6%;且可实现对分层面积的准确定量评估,定量误差不超过5%。      

Air-coupled guided waves combined with thermography for monitoring fatigue in biaxially loaded composite tubes

Non-destructive methodologies for remote monitoring of fatigue induced by mechanical load in fibre reinforced plastics are presented. Hollow cylinders (glass fibre winding) were stepwise biaxially fatigued and measured in single-sided access configurations. Based on conversion of air-coupled ultrasound to guided waves, it is shown that accumulated fatigue damage is accompanied by decrease in phase velocity and increase in attenuation. The change in wave velocity caused by fatigue is shown to correlate closely with measurements of stiffness degradation of the composite. The attenuation of guided waves is affected by crack density which is visually traceable in the transparent composite. Monitoring of cyclic loading of the specimens by thermal imaging and a high-speed camera revealed that the initiation of final failure in the specimens coincides with spots of increased temperature. Air-coupled guided wave area scans allow for observing the development of these areas and other local damage in the composite.     

Acoustic structural health monitoring of composite materials : Damage identification and evaluation in cross ply laminates using acoustic emission and ultrasonics

The characterisation of the damage state of composite structures is often performed using the acoustic behaviour of the composite system. This behaviour is expected to change significantly as the damage is accumulating in the composite. It is indisputable that different damage mechanisms are activated within the composite laminate during loading scenario. These “damage entities” are acting in different space and time scales within the service life of the structure and may be interdependent. It has been argued that different damage mechanisms attribute distinct acoustic behaviour to the composite system. Loading of cross-ply laminates in particular leads to the accumulation of distinct damage mechanisms, such as matrix cracking, delamination between successive plies and fibre rupture at the final stage of loading. As highlighted in this work, the acoustic emission activity is directly linked to the structural health state of the laminate. At the same time, significant changes on the wave propagation characteristics are reported and correlated to damage accumulation in the composite laminate. In the case of cross ply laminates, experimental tests and numerical simulations indicate that, typical to the presence of transverse cracking and/or delamination, is the increase of the pulse velocity and the transmission efficiency of a propagated ultrasonic wave, an indication that the intact longitudinal plies act as wave guides, as the transverse ply deteriorates. Further to transverse cracking and delamination, the accumulation of longitudinal fibre breaks becomes dominant causing the catastrophic failure of the composite and is expected to be directly linked to the acoustic behaviour of the composite, as the stiffness loss results to the velocity decrease of the propagated wave. In view of the above, the scope of the current work is to assess the efficiency of acoustic emission and ultrasonic transmission as a combined methodology for the assessment of the introduced damage and furthermore as a structural health monitoring tool.     

基于Shannon 复数小波的复合材料结构时间反转聚焦多损伤成像方法

研究了一种基于压电传感器阵列和主动Lamb 波的结构损伤成像方法,有助于克服Lamb 波在板结构中、特别是在复合材料板结构中存在的频散、多种模式及模式转换的现象给结构健康监测带来的困难。分析了结构多损伤散射信号的时间反转聚焦原理,在此基础上提出了一种基于Shannon 复数小波和时间反转聚焦的信号合成成像方法。该方法中,确定Lamb 波响应信号的到达时刻是信号能够准确聚焦的关键因素之一。提出了利用Shannon 复数小波变换计算Lamb 波响应信号到达时刻的方法。在碳纤维复合材料板结构上对整套信号合成成像方法进行了验证。研究结果表明,该方法能够有效地对同一个监测区域中的多个损伤进行成像定位。相对于30 cm ×30 cm 的监测区域,定位误差不超过2 cm。该方法有助于结构健康监测技术的工程应用。      

基于概率损伤算法的复合材料板空气耦合Lamb波扫描成像

采用非接触空耦传感器在准各向同性复合材料板中激励出单一的Lamb波模态,用于分层缺陷的扫描检测。扫描时,激励和接收传感器置于复合材料板同侧并相对倾斜布置,传感器沿2个正交方向同步线性扫描,得到不同位置的检测信号。对不同扫描路径下的检测信号进行连续小波变换,提取激励频率下的小波系数包络信号,对分层缺陷进行成像。在此基础上,利用概率损伤算法定义损伤指数,结合不同方向的损伤指数实现分层缺陷成像。采用全加法和全乘法对2个正交扫描方向得到的成像结果进行数据融合,实现了分层缺陷的定位和重构。并在成像算法中引入阈值,进一步提高了分层缺陷的定位精度以及重构质量。     

Damage monitoring and identification in SiC/SiC minicomposites using combined acousto-ultrasonics and acoustic emission

The acoustic emission (AE)-based technique is considered to be a promising way to real-time monitoring of microstructural changes and damage evolution in Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The present paper proposes a testing protocol that combines acousto-ultrasonics (AU) and acoustic emission (AE) monitoring, with a view to obtain both global and local definite characteristics on damage modes and kinetics. It is developed and assessed on SiC/SiC minicomposites, which are appropriate test specimens to establish sound relations between mechanical behavior and damage modes. AU wave velocity measurements provide a global measure of matrix cracking damage and the relations between crack growth and damage characteristics. AE monitoring allows accurate localization of AE sources taking into account wave velocity dependence to damage as well as differentiation of the damage modes, which control the mechanical behavior. Finally, multivariate analysis of AE data allowed classification of signals into clusters, which were successfully associated to the various damage modes.     

Estimation of composite damage model parameters using spectral finite element and neural network

A multi-layer perceptron (MLP) network using error back propagation algorithm is employed in this paper to estimate the damage parameters from broad-band spectral data as diagnostic signal. Various existing models of damage in laminated composite and the resulting stiffness degradation are discussed from comparative view-point. Degradation of ply properties can be considered to be one of the damage model parameters while monitoring transverse matrix cracks in cross-ply, splitting in longitudinal ply, and evolution of consecutive stages of damage, such as delaminations and fiber fracture. The stiffness degradation factor, the location and size of the damaged zone in laminated composite beam are considered as damage model parameters in the present paper. Fourier spectral data, which is typical to most of the diagnostic wave measurements, are used as input to the neural network. Since, training the neural network in such case involves many data sets and all of these data are difficult to generate using experiments, a spectral finite element model (SFEM) with embedded degraded zone in laminated composite beam is developed. Numerical simulation using this element is carried out, which shows the nature of temporal signal that are likely to be measured. Analytical studies on the performance of the neural network are presented based on numerically simulated data. Effect of measurement noise on the network performance is also reported.     

基于三维弹性理论的碳纤维板中Lamb波建模

基于主动Lamb波的结构健康监测是目前复合材料结构损伤监测技术研究的热点之一,了解Lamb波的传播特性对进行可靠的损伤监测非常重要.本文结合经典三维弹性理论与Lamb波的运动位移方程,对碳纤维复合材料板中传播的Lamb波传播特性进行了建模研究,在此基础上推导了碳纤维板的相速度频散曲线,并讨论了Lamb波传播方向与坐标轴之间的夹角及碳纤维铺层方向对频散曲线的影响,建模结果证明了这种建模方法的正确性.     

Feasibility and limitations of damage identification in composite materials using acoustic emission

One of the current challenges in health monitoring of composite materials is the use of acoustic emission to identify damage modes. Many classification procedures have been reported in the literature but none of them clearly state limitations to their applicability, making it difficult to quantify them in different testing conditions. In the present paper, a method is described to characterize energy attenuation and how it affects AE signals features based solely on AE signals recorded during mechanical tests. Limitations to damage identification based on AE signals features can therefore be defined. The method is demonstrated on AE signals recorded during tensile tests on four different layups of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites using signals frequency centroids to describe AE sources.     

Lamb Waves for Damage Localisation in Panels

Abstract: In this study, Lamb wave propagation phenomena have been used to localise discontinuities in aluminium and composite panels. For that purpose, piezoelectric transducers have been used to excite and register Lamb waves in the panels. Excited waves that propagate and reflect from the panel edges and discontinuities were registered by piezoelectric sensors as voltage changes in time. Three different experiments have been conducted to investigate the wave propagation phenomena. In the first experiment, the attenuation and dispersion of Lamb waves in the aluminium panel has been studied. The second experiment has been oriented to localise an additional mass attached to the same panel. A dedicated signal‐processing algorithm has been developed to aid the localisation procedure that allowed to extract relevant features of the discontinuity. The algorithm has been tested on signals from the panel with and without the additional mass. The results obtained have been compared to find the position of the discontinuity. The third experiment concerned a more realistic damage scenario when piezoelectric transducers have been arranged as a clock‐like array to find a crack in a composite panel.     

Damage assessment in layered composites using spectral analysis and Lamb wave

Piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type are commonly used for structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques. But, there is a disadvantage to use piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type in Lamb wave application. Due to the symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb wave modes generated by the surface mounted piezo-ceramic transducers simultaneously, the received signals are very complex and it is difficult to extract damage information from the signals.

In this paper, the practical method for SHM was proposed using piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type and Lamb wave. In order to overcome the difficulties in the signal processing of the simultaneous modes, the symmetric and antisymmetric modes were separated by using the two sensors bonded on the opposite surfaces at the same point. Also, spectral analyses of the separated symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb waves showed that each mode propagated with different frequency characteristics in the exciting frequency range.

By making use of these findings, the changes of power spectrum density in characteristic frequency band of symmetric and antisymmetric modes are proportional to the delamination size in quasi-isotropic Gr/Ep laminates. Therefore, this paper presents the damage assessment technique to extract damage information from the complicated PZT signals that could not be interpreted in time domain.     

Structural Health Monitoring Using Lamb Wave Reflections and Total Focusing Method for Image Reconstruction

This investigation aimed to adapt the total focusing method (TFM) algorithm (originated from the synthetic aperture focusing technique in digital signal processing) to accommodate a circular array of piezoelectric sensors (PZT) and characterise defects using guided wave signals for the development of a structural health monitoring system. This research presents the initial results of a broader study focusing on the development of a structural health monitoring (SHM) guided wave system for advance carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite materials. The current material investigated was an isotropic (aluminium) square plate with 16 transducers operating successively as emitter or sensor in pitch and catch configuration enabling the collection of 240 signals per assessment. The Lamb wave signals collected were tuned on the symmetric fundamental mode with a wavelength of 17 mm, by setting the excitation frequency to 300 kHz. The initial condition for the imaging system, such as wave speed and transducer position, were determined with post processing of the baseline signals through a method involving the identification of the waves reflected from the free edge of the plate. The imaging algorithm was adapted to accommodate multiple transmitting transducers in random positions. A circular defect of 10 mm in diameter was drilled in the plate, which is similar to the delamination size introduced by a low velocity impact event in a composite plate. Images were obtained by applying the TFM to the baseline signals, Test 1 data (corresponding to the signals obtained after introduction of the defect) and to the data derived from the subtraction of the baseline to the Test 1 signals. The result shows that despite the damage diameter being 40 % smaller than the wavelength, the image (of the subtracted baseline data) demonstrated that the system can locate where the waves were reflected from the defect boundary. In other words, the contour of the damaged area was highlighted enabling its size and position to be determined.     

A quantitative identification approach for delamination in laminated composite beams using digital damage fingerprints (DDFs)

Digital damage fingerprints (DDFs) are a set of optimised and digitised characteristics of structural signatures, which are able to exactly and uniquely define a certain kind of structural healthy status. The DDF-based damage recognition technique includes the extraction of DDFs, assembly of damage parameters database (DPD) and subsequently inverse recognition in virtue of artificial intelligence. In this study, DDFs extracted from Lamb wave signals were employed to quantitatively assess delamination in carbon fibre-reinforced laminated beams. Characteristics of Lamb wave signals in the laminated beams were first evaluated, and DPD hosting DDFs for selected damage scenarios was constructed through numerical simulations, which was used to predict delamination in the composite beams with the aid of an artificial neural algorithm. The diagnostic results have demonstrated the excellent performance of DDF technique for quantitative damage identification.     

Development of smart composite structures with small-diameter fiber Bragg grating sensors for damage detection: Quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing

The authors and Hitachi Cable, Ltd. have recently developed small-diameter optical fiber and its fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor for embedment inside a lamina of composite laminates without strength reduction. The outside diameters of the cladding and polyimide coating are 40 and 52 μm, respectively. First, a brief summary is presented for applications of small-diameter FBG sensors to damage monitoring in composite structures. Then, we propose a new damage detection system for quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing. In this system, a piezo-ceramic actuator generates Lamb waves in a CFRP laminate. After the waves propagate in the laminate, transmitted waves are received by an FBG sensor attached on or embedded in the laminate using a newly developed high-speed optical wavelength interrogation system. This system was applied to detect interlaminar delamination in CFRP cross-ply laminates. When the Lamb waves passed through the delamination, the amplitude decreased and a new wave mode appeared. These phenomena could be well simulated using a finite element analysis. From the changes in the amplitude ratio and the arrival time of the new mode depending on the delamination length, it was found that this system could evaluate the delamination length quantitatively. Furthermore, small-diameter FBG sensors were embedded in a double-lap type coupon specimen, and the debonding progress could be evaluated using the wavelet transform.     

Condition Based Structural Health Monitoring and Prognosis of Composite Structures under Uniaxial and Biaxial Loading

This paper presents a condition based structural health monitoring (SHM) and prognosis approach to estimate the residual useful life (RUL) of composite specimens in real time. On-line damage states, which are estimated using real time sensing information, are fed to an off-line predictive model to update future damage states and RUL. The on-line damage index or damage state at any given fatigue cycle is estimated using correlation analysis. Based on the on-line information of the previous and current damage states, an off-line model is developed to predict the future damage state and estimate the RUL. The off-line model is a stochastic model which is developed based on the Gaussian process approach. In this paper, the condition based prognosis model is used to estimate the cumulative fatigue damage in composite test structures under constant amplitude fatigue loading. The proposed procedure is validated under uniaxial fatigue loading as well as biaxial fatigue loading. Experimental validations demonstrate that the prediction capability of the prognosis algorithm is effective in predicting the RUL under complex stress states.     

An orthotropic variant of the equilibrium gap method applied to the analysis of a biaxial test on a composite material

In this paper, it is proposed to apply the equilibrium gap method to orthotropic composite materials to retrieve damage laws from measured displacement fields. A finite difference implementation method is first proposed. A linear system is formed, for which the unknowns are piecewise constant orthotropic rigidities, while the measured displacements are input (known) data. In this example, a cruciform specimen is considered for biaxial test. It is shown that, by referring to FE computed displacement fields a prescribed contrast map can be identified. Corrupted artificial displacement fields obtained through non-linear simulations are also used. When considering shear damage, a procedure using estimated contrast maps to identify a damage law is validated. An experimental biaxial test on a 2.5 C/C composite is finally analysed following the proposed approach. For each unloading step, a contrast map for all moduli is obtained from full-field measurements. By assuming that the shear moduli contrasts result from a damage mechanism, one subsequently obtains damage maps, and therefore, a growth law. The results are first validated by comparing measured and FE reconstructed displacement fields, and by comparing the identified damage fields with post-processed ones.     

Effects of carboxyl radical on electrical resistance of multi-walled carbon nanotube filled silicone rubber composite under pressure

The piezoresistance of a multi-walled carbon nanotube filled silicone rubber composite under uniaxial pressure was studied. The experimental results show that the active carboxyl radical on multi-walled carbon nanotubes can effectively improve the homogeneous distribution and alignment of conductive paths in the composite. As a result, the composite presented positive piezoresistance with improved sensitivity and sensing linearity for pressure, both of which are key parameters for sensor applications.