Unpolarized emissivity with shadow and multiple reflections from random rough surfaces with the geometric optics approximation: application to Gaussian sea surfaces in the infrared band

The emissivity from a stationary random rough surface is derived by taking into account the multiple reflections and the shadowing effect. The model is applied to the ocean surface. The geometric optics approximation is assumed to be valid, which means that the rough surface is modeled as a collection of facets reflecting locally the light in the specular direction. In particular, the emissivity with zero, single, and double reflections are analytically calculated, and each contribution is studied numerically by considering a 1D sea surface observed in the near infrared band. The model is also compared with results computed from a Monte Carlo ray-tracing method.     

Unpolarized infrared emissivity with shadow from anisotropic rough sea surfaces with non-Gaussian statistics

The emissivity of two-dimensional anisotropic rough sea surfaces with non-Gaussian statistics is investigated. The emissivity derivation is of importance for retrieval of the sea-surface temperature or equivalent temperature of a rough sea surface by infrared thermal imaging. The well-known Cox-Munk slope probability-density function, considered non-Gaussian, is used for the emissivity derivation, in which the skewness and the kurtosis (related to the third- and fourth-order statistics, respectively) are included. The shadowing effect, which is significant for grazing angles, is also taken into account. The geometric optics approximation is assumed to be valid, which means that the rough surface is modeled as a collection of facets reflecting locally the light in the specular direction. In addition, multiple reflections are ignored. Numerical results of the emissivity are presented for Gaussian and non-Gaussian statistics, for moderate wind speeds, for near-infrared wavelengths, for emission angles ranging from 0 degrees (nadir) to 90 degrees (horizon), and according to the wind direction. In addition, the emissivity is compared with both measurements and a Monte Carlo ray-tracing method.     

Simultaneous measurements of skin sea surface temperature and sea surface emissivity from a single thermal imagery

A novel method, to our knowledge, to measure simultaneously the thermal emissivity and skin temperature of a sea surface has been developed. The proposed method uses an infrared image that includes a sea surface and a reference object located near the surface. By combining this image with sky radiation temperature, we retrieve both skin sea surface temperature and sea surface emissivity from the single infrared image. Because the method requires no knowledge of thermal radiative properties of actual sea surfaces, it can be used even for a contaminated sea surface whose emissivity is hard to determine theoretically, e.g., oil slicks or slicks produced by biological wastes. Experimental results demonstrate that the estimated emissivity agrees with the theoretical prediction and, also, the recovered temperature distribution of skin sea surface has no appreciable high-temperature area that is due to reflection of the reference object. The method allows the acquisition of match-up data of radiometric sea surface temperatures that precisely correspond to the satellite observable data.     

Effective emissivities of isothermal blackbody cavities calculated by the Monte Carlo method using the three-component bidirectional reflectance distribution function model

This paper proposes a three-component bidirectional reflectance distribution function (3C BRDF) model consisting of diffuse, quasi-specular, and glossy components for calculation of effective emissivities of blackbody cavities and then investigates the properties of the new reflection model. The particle swarm optimization method is applied for fitting a 3C BRDF model to measured BRDFs. The model is incorporated into the Monte Carlo ray-tracing algorithm for isothermal cavities. Finally, the paper compares the results obtained using the 3C model and the conventional specular-diffuse model of reflection.     

Emissivity of rough sea surface for 8-13 num: modeling and verification

The emissivity model for rough sea surface [Remote Sensing Environ. 24, 313-329 (1988)] is inspected in light of the measured surface emissivity. In the presence of moderate wind (5 m/s or less), the emissivity model is found to be adequate for small to moderate view angles. For large view angles, the discrepancy between the computed and the measured emissivity is large, but one can reduce this considerably by incorporating the reflected sea surface emission into the emissivity model. In addition, examination of the spectral variation of the observed and computed emissivity suggests the need for refined measurements of the complex refractive index. An improved model is constructed to calculate the rough sea surface emissivity that can be used to provide accurate estimates of sea surface skin temperatures from remotely sensed radiometric measurements. An important feature of the improved model is that the computed sea surface emissivity is only weakly dependent on wind speed for most view angles used in practice.     

Radiative Properties of Blackbody Calibration Sources:Recent Advances in Computer Modeling

The radiative characteristics (spectral effective emissivity, spectral radiance, and radiance temperature) of blackbody calibration sources widely used in radiation thermometry are an important subject for advanced computer modeling by the Monte Carlo method. An algorithm and code for stochastic modeling of the radiant heat transfer inside cavities has been developed on the basis of the reciprocity principle and backward ray tracing. The importance sampling technique has been applied to generate the reflected rays according to the surface reflection model that can be a linear combination of the following primary models: Lambertian, Specular, and TETRA (a microfacet model of random tetrahedral pits that mimics reflections from a rough surface). A wide range of axisymmetrical cavities, cylindrical cavities with an inclined flat bottom, and a rectilinear grooved radiator of polygonal profile have been implemented. Various conditions of observation can be modeled to compute appropriate radiation characteristics. A number of different temperature distributions can be assigned to the same node set on the cavity surface, so several related tasks can be modeled in a single run. The results obtained for the radiative properties of isothermal and non-isothermal non-diffuse blackbodies used for the calibration of infrared radiation thermometers are presented and discussed.     

Effect of the observation length on the two-dimensional shadowing function of the sea surface: application on infrared 3-13-microm emissivity

An analytical approach of the two-dimensional emissivity of a rough sea surface in the infrared band is presented. The emissivity characterizes the intrinsic radiation of the sea surface. Because the temperature measured by the infrared camera depends on the emissivity, the emissivity is a relevant parameter for retrieving the sea-surface temperature from remotely sensed radiometric measurements, such as from satellites. This theory is developed from the first-order geometrical-optics approximation and is based on recent research. The typical approach assumes that the slope in the upwind direction is greater than the slope in the crosswind direction, involving the use of a one-dimensional shadowing function with the observed surface assumed to be infinite. We introduce the two-dimensional shadowing function and the surface observation length parameters that are included in the modeling of the two-dimensional emissivity.     

Laboratory measurements of spectral reflection from ice clouds of various habits

Spectral light from 550 to 650 nm reflected from the surface of an ice cloud produced in a temperature-controlled column is measured at seven different angles between 16.7 degrees and 29.9 degrees . Cloud optical depth (tau) is determined from the extinction of a 670 nm laser and is corrected for forward scattering using a Monte Carlo ray-tracing algorithm. Reflection measurements are compared to expectations from a plane-parallel radiative transfer model with input parameters based on the measured tau and a phase function for the observed ice crystal types. The plane-parallel radiative transfer model can be used to interpret the measured reflection for tau less than about 0.4 for this particular experiment, ideal for providing a validation data set to assist with the development of satellite bidirectional remote sensing.     

Emissivity and reflection model for calculating unpolarized isotropic water surface-leaving radiance in the infrared. I: Theoretical development and calculations

Although published sea surface infrared (IR) emissivity models have gained widespread acceptance for remote sensing applications, discrepancies have been identified against field observations obtained from IR Fourier transform spectrometers at view angles approximately > 40 degrees. We therefore propose, in this two-part paper, an alternative approach for calculating surface-leaving IR radiance that treats both emissivity and atmospheric reflection in a systematic yet practical manner. This first part presents the theoretical basis, development, and computations of the proposed model.     

大口径热管面源黑体炉的研制及性能评价

针对红外成像光学系统校正,研制了大口径热管面源黑体炉.通过Monte Carlo方法对具有同心圆V形槽表面的辐射特性进行了分析,借助黑体空腔理论完成黑体炉的结构设计,采用热管技术,PIC16F876微处理器和模糊PID开关切换控制算法实现黑体炉的温控.通过试验测试,验证了此辐射源具有均匀一致的有效发射率和辐射出度.     

Measurement and Analysis of the Temperature Gradient of Blackbody Cavities,for Use in Radiation Thermometry

Blackbody cavities are the standard radiation sources widely used in the fields of radiometry and radiation thermometry. Its effective emissivity and uncertainty depend to a large extent on the temperature gradient. An experimental procedure based on the radiometric method for measuring the gradient is followed. Results are applied to particular blackbody configurations where gradients can be thermometrically estimated by contact thermometers and where the relationship between both basic methods can be established. The proposed procedure may be applied to commercial blackbodies if they are modified allowing secondary contact temperature measurement. In addition, the established systematic may be incorporated as part of the actions for quality assurance in routine calibrations of radiation thermometers, by using the secondary contact temperature measurement for detecting departures from the real radiometrically obtained gradient and the effect on the uncertainty. On the other hand, a theoretical model is proposed to evaluate the effect of temperature variations on effective emissivity and associated uncertainty. This model is based on a gradient sample chosen following plausible criteria. The model is consistent with the Monte Carlo method for calculating the uncertainty of effective emissivity and complements others published in the literature where uncertainty is calculated taking into account only geometrical variables and intrinsic emissivity. The mathematical model and experimental procedure are applied and validated using a commercial type three-zone furnace, with a blackbody cavity modified to enable a secondary contact temperature measurement, in the range between 400 °C and 1000 °C.     

Analysis of Monte Carlo methods applied to blackbody and lower emissivity cavities

Monte Carlo methods are often applied to the calculation of the apparent emissivities of blackbody cavities. However, for cavities with complex as well as some commonly encountered geometries, the emission Monte Carlo method experiences problems of convergence. The emission and absorption Monte Carlo methods are compared on the basis of ease of implementation and convergence speed when applied to blackbody sources. A new method to determine solution convergence compatible with both methods is developed, and the convergence speeds of the two methods are compared through the application of both methods to a right-circular cylinder cavity. It is shown that the absorption method converges faster and is easier to implement than the emission method when applied to most blackbody and lower emissivity cavities.     

Pyrometry inside an arc furnace using a ray-tracing correction for surface emissivity

A general method using a ray-tracing analysis has been developed to improve the accuracy of surface temperatures measured by pyrometry inside a furnace. This method allows temperature correction for enclosed non-ideal black-body surfaces, having temperature gradients, by taking into account the contributions from the reflected fraction of the pyrometer field-of-view. The development has been made possible by the recent availability of internal furnace scanning pyrometry technology for complete temperature profile measurements inside furnaces. The correction method can be expressed in terms of the solution of a square matrix having a dimension corresponding to the number of spatially resolved points in the temperature profile, with the number of non-zero elements depending on the number of field-of-view reflective surface bounce points used in the analysis. The utility of this method is demonstrated for the correction of 19-point temperature profiles measured inside a dc arc furnace. Reflective contributions from two, three, and four field-of-view surface bounce points are considered. Generally, the lower the surface emissivity and the higher the temperatures, the more bounces needed in the analysis. It is shown that there can be significant corrections to internal furnace temperatures measured by pyrometry when temperature gradients exist.     

100～400K真空红外亮温标准黑体辐射源研制

介绍了中国计量科学研究院研制的100~400K真空红外亮温标准黑体辐射源的工作原理、结构、性能测试方法及测试结果。黑体辐射源通过液氮制冷与3温区控制实现了100~400K范围内的温度控制。在真空环境下,测试了其在温度范围100~400K轴向温度均匀性、底部温度稳定性等技术指标,结果表明均匀性优于0.120K,控温稳定性优于0.020K/20min;在室温大气环境下,利用基于控制环境辐射的发射率测量方法测量了黑体空腔发射率,空腔法向发射率为0.9998。采用基于蒙特卡罗黑体发射率仿真计算方法分析轴向温度均匀性对空腔发射率的影响,分析了标准黑体辐射源的不确定度来源,在8~16 μm波长亮度温度的合成标准不确定度优于0.030K。     

Radiative transfer solution for rugged and heterogeneous scene observations

A physical algorithm is developed to solve the radiative transfer problem in the solar reflective spectral domain. This new code, Advanced Modeling of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer for Inhomogeneous Surfaces (AMARTIS), takes into account the relief, the spatial heterogeneity, and the bidirectional reflectances of ground surfaces. The resolution method consists of first identifying the irradiance and radiance components at ground and sensor levels and then modeling these components separately, the rationale being to find the optimal trade off between accuracy and computation times. The validity of the various assumptions introduced in the AMARTIS model are checked through comparisons with a reference Monte Carlo radiative transfer code for various ground scenes: flat ground with two surface types, a linear sand dune landscape, and an extreme mountainous configuration. The results show a divergence of less than 2% between the AMARTIS code and the Monte Carlo reference code for the total signals received at satellite level. In particular, it is demonstrated that the environmental and topographic effects are properly assessed by the AMARTIS model even for situations in which the effects become dominant.     

Accelerated Monte Carlo models to simulate fluorescence spectra from layered tissues

Two efficient Monte Carlo models are described, facilitating predictions of complete time-resolved fluorescence spectra from a light-scattering and light-absorbing medium. These are compared with a third, conventional fluorescence Monte Carlo model in terms of accuracy, signal-to-noise statistics, and simulation time. The improved computation efficiency is achieved by means of a convolution technique, justified by the symmetry of the problem. Furthermore, the reciprocity principle for photon paths, employed in one of the accelerated models, is shown to simplify the computations of the distribution of the emitted fluorescence drastically. A so-called white Monte Carlo approach is finally suggested for efficient simulations of one excitation wavelength combined with a wide range of emission wavelengths. The fluorescence is simulated in a purely scattering medium, and the absorption properties are instead taken into account analytically afterward. This approach is applicable to the conventional model as well as to the two accelerated models. Essentially the same absolute values for the fluorescence integrated over the emitting surface and time are obtained for the three models within the accuracy of the simulations. The time-resolved and spatially resolved fluorescence exhibits a slight overestimation at short delay times close to the source corresponding to approximately two grid elements for the accelerated models, as a result of the discretization and the convolution. The improved efficiency is most prominent for the reverse-emission accelerated model, for which the simulation time can be reduced by up to two orders of magnitude.     

Computational strategy for the crash design analysis using an uncertain computational mechanical model

The framework of this paper is the robust crash analysis of a motor vehicle. The crash analysis is carried out with an uncertain computational model for which uncertainties are taken into account with the parametric probabilistic approach and for which the stochastic solver is the Monte Carlo method. During the design process, different configurations of the motor vehicle are analyzed. Usual interpolation methods cannot be used to predict if the current configuration is similar or not to one of the previous configurations already analyzed and for which a complete stochastic computation has been carried out. In this paper, we propose a new indicator that allows to decide if the current configuration is similar to one of the previous analyzed configurations while the Monte Carlo simulation is not finished and therefore, to stop the Monte Carlo simulation before the end of computation.     

Light-transmittance predictions under multiple-light-scattering conditions. I. Direct problem: hybrid-method approximation

Our aim is to present a method of predicting light transmittances through dense three-dimensional layered media. A hybrid method is introduced as a combination of the four-flux method with coefficients predicted from a Monte Carlo statistical model to take into account the actual three-dimensional geometry of the problem under study. We present the principles of the hybrid method, some exemplifying results of numerical simulations, and their comparison with results obtained from Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law and from Monte Carlo simulations.     

低红外发射率耐高温涂层的制备及机理

以漂浮态铝粉为填料,有机硅树脂作为粘合剂,制备了耐高温低红外发射率涂层。对填料的添加量、涂层的固化温度进行了优化研究,对填料及涂层进行了结构、形貌的表征,并测试了涂层的红外发射率与耐热性能。研究结果表明,填料添加量为30%、400℃固化2h,涂层红外发射率(3～5μm,8～14μm)最低可达0.10～0.12,且涂层可在600℃条件下长时间使用。此外,分析认为涂层发射率的降低是消除粘合剂吸收及致密的片层连续结构两者协同作用的结果,并提出新的涂层结构模型对低发射率机理进行了阐述。     

Calculation of radiative transfer in nongray gas using a narrow-band model and Monte Carlo simulation

Radiation transfer is treated by the application of a narrow-band statistical model (NBSM) that takes emission and absorption gas spectral structures into account. A Monte Carlo method (MCM) using a net exchange technique was developed to integrate the radiative-transfer equation in nongray gas. The proposed procedure is based on a net-exchange formulation (NEF). This formulation provides an efficient way of systematically fulfilling the reciprocity principle, which avoids some of the major problems usually associated with the Monte Carlo method; the numerical efficiency becomes independent of the optical thickness, highly nonuniform grid sizes can be used with no increase in computation time, and configurations with small temperature differences can be treated with very good accuracy. It is shown that the radiative term is significant compared to the conductive term in just two specific regions in the emitting and absorbing gas in the immediate vicinity of the wall and in the external part of the boundary layer. The exchange Monte Carlo method (EMCM) is described in detail for a one-dimensional slab.