Comparative study of fast critical burner reactors and subcritical accelerator driven systems and the impact on transuranics inventory in a regional fuel cycle

In the frame of Partitioning and Transmutation (P&T) strategies, many solutions have been proposed in order to burn transuranics (TRU) discharged from conventional thermal reactors in fast reactor systems. This is due to the favourable feature of neutron fission to capture cross section ratio in a fast neutron spectrum for most TRU. However the majority of studies performed use the Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS), due to their potential flexibility to utilize various fuel types, loaded with significant amounts of TRU having very different Minor Actinides (MA) over Pu ratios. Recently the potential of low conversion ratio critical fast reactors has been rediscovered, with very attractive burning capabilities. In the present paper the burning performances of two systems are directly compared: a sodium cooled critical fast reactor with a low conversion ratio, and the European lead cooled subcritical ADS-EFIT reactor loaded with fertile-free fuel. Comparison is done for characteristics of both the intrinsic core and the regional fuel cycle within a European double-strata scenario. Results of the simulations, obtained by use of French COSI6 code, show comparable performance and confirm that in a double strata fuel cycle the same goals could be achieved by deploying dedicated fast critical or ADS-EFIT type reactors. However the critical fast burner reactor fleet requires ∼30-40% higher installed power then the ADS-EFIT one. Therefore full comparative assessment and ranking can be done only by a parametric sensitivity study of both the fuel cycle and the electricity generating costs.     

Optimum utilization of nuclear fuel with gas and vapor core reactors

Gas and Vapor Core Reactors (G/VCR) are externally reflected and moderated nuclear energy systems fueled by stable uranium compound in gaseous or vapor phase. In G/VCR systems the functions of fuel and coolant are combined and the reactor outlet temperature is not constrained by solid fuel-cladding temperature limitations. G/VCRs can potentially provide the highest reactor and cycle temperature among all existing or proposed fission reactor designs. Furthermore, G/VCR systems feature a low inventory and fully integrated fuel cycle with exceptional sustainability and safety characteristics. With respect to fuel utilization, there is practically no fuel burn-up limit for gas core reactors due to continuous recycling of the fuel. Owing to flexibility in nuclear design characteristics of cavity reactors, a wide range of conversion ratio from almost solely a burner to a breeder is achievable. The continuous recycling of fuel in G/VCR systems allows for continuous burning and transmutation of actinides without removing and reprocessing of the fuel. The only waste product at the backend of the gas core reactors' fuel cycle is fission fragments that are continuously separated from the fuel. As a result the G/VCR systems do not require spent fuel storage or reprocessing.

G/VCR systems also feature outstanding proliferation resistance characteristics and minimum vulnerability to external threats. Even for comparable spectral characteristic, gas core reactors produce fissile plutonium two orders of magnitude less than Light Water Reactors (LWRs). In addition, the continuous transmutation and burning of actinides further reduces the quality of the fissile plutonium inventory. The low fuel inventory (about two orders of magnitude lower than LWRs for the same power generation level) combined with continuous burning of actinides, significantly reduces the need for emergency planning and the vulnerability to external threats. Low fuel inventory, low fuel heat content, and online separation of fission fragments are among the key constituent safety features of G/VCR systems.     

The sensitivity of fuel cycle performance to separation efficiency

Reprocessing separation efficiency is a major design variable in the implementation of advanced fuel cycles as it affects waste disposal requirements, fuel fabrication, system economics, and other fuel cycle system characteristics. Using a newly developed, physics-based integrated fuel cycle systems analysis model, this study investigated the impact of varying reprocessing separation efficiencies on fuel cycle cost (FCC), proliferation resistance and repository impact. Repository impact was captured by the disposal facility capacity governed by thermal output, the projected dose rate, mass inventory, and waste toxicity index. The coupled systems analysis model included fast reactor simulation tool to analyze the depletion in the fast reactor and the requirements for the fresh fuel in transient and equilibrium states. In this calculation, the feedback between separation efficiencies and fresh and discharged fuel compositions was dynamically accounted for. The new systems model was benchmarked against published results and used to investigate a single-tier nuclear fuel cycle scenario in which light water reactors (LWRs) and 0.5 transuranic (TRU) conversion ratio (CR) sodium-cooled fast reactors are deployed in an equilibrium that results in zero net TRU production. The results indicated that fuel cycle system performance is significantly affected by the changes in partitioning strategies and elemental separation efficiency in reprocessing plants. Moreover, the effect of varying separation efficiencies on reactor performance, fuel cycle mass balances and economic performance are discussed.     

The effectiveness of full actinide recycle as a nuclear waste management strategy when implemented over a limited timeframe – Part II: Thorium fuel cycle

Full recycling of transuranic (TRU) isotopes can in theory lead to a reduction in repository radiotoxicity to reference levels in as little as ∼500 years provided reprocessing and fuel fabrication losses are limited. However, over a limited timeframe, the radiotoxicity of the ‘final’ core can dominate over reprocessing losses, leading to a much lower reduction in radiotoxicity compared to that achievable at equilibrium. In Part I of this paper, TRU recycle over up to 5 generations of light water reactors (LWRs) or sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs) is considered for uranium (U) fuel cycles. With full actinide recycling, at least 6 generations of SFRs are required in a gradual phase-out of nuclear power to achieve transmutation performance approaching the theoretical equilibrium performance. U-fuelled SFRs operating a break-even fuel cycle are not particularly effective at reducing repository radiotoxicity as the final core load dominates over a very long timeframe. In this paper, the analysis is extended to the thorium (Th) fuel cycle. Closed Th-based fuel cycles are well known to have lower equilibrium radiotoxicity than U-based fuel cycles but the time taken to reach equilibrium is generally very long. Th burner fuel cycles with SFRs are found to result in very similar radiotoxicity to U burner fuel cycles with SFRs for one less generation of reactors, provided that protactinium (Pa) is recycled. Th-fuelled reduced-moderation boiling water reactors (RBWRs) are also considered, but for burner fuel cycles their performance is substantially worse, with the waste taking ∼3–5 times longer to decay to the reference level than for Th-fuelled SFRs with the same number of generations. Th break-even fuel cycles require ∼3 generations of operation before their waste radiotoxicity benefits result in decay to the reference level in ∼1000 years. While this is a very long timeframe, it is roughly half that required for waste from the Th or U burner fuel cycle to decay to the reference level, and less than a tenth that required for the U break-even fuel cycle. The improved performance over burner fuel cycles is due to a more substantial contribution of energy generated by ²³³U leading to lower radiotoxicity per unit energy generation. To some extent this an argument based on how the radiotoxicity is normalised: operating a break-even fuel cycle rather than phasing out nuclear power using a burner fuel cycle results in higher repository radiotoxicity in absolute terms. The advantage of Th break-even fuel cycles is also contingent on recycling Pa, and reprocessing losses are significant also for a small number of generations due to the need to effectively burn down the TRU. The integrated decay heat over the scenario timeframe is almost twice as high for a break-even Th fuel cycle than a break-even U fuel cycle when using SFRs, as a result of much higher ⁹⁰Sr production, which subsequently decays into ⁹⁰Y. The peak decay heat is comparable. As decay heat at vitrification and repository decay heat affect repository sizing, this may weaken the argument for the Th cycle.     

Impact of PWR spent fuel variations on back-end features of advanced fuel cycles with tru-fueled VHTR

Alternative strategies are being considered as management option for current spent nuclear fuel transuranics (TRU) inventory. Creation of transmutation fuels containing TRU for use in thermal and fast reactors is one of the viable strategies. Utilization of these advanced fuels will result in transmutation and incineration of the TRU. The objective of this study is to analyze the impact of conventional PWR spent fuel variations on TRU-fueled very high temperature reactor (VHTR) systems. The current effort is focused on prismatic core configuration operated under a single batch once-through fuel cycle option. IAEA’s nuclear fuel cycle simulation system (VISTA) was used to determine potential PWR spent fuel compositions. Additional composition was determined from the analysis of United States legacy spent fuel that is given in the Yucca Mountain Safety Assessment Report. A detailed whole-core 3-D model of the prismatic VHTR was developed using SCALE5.1 code system. The fuel assembly block model was based on Japan’s HTTR fuel block configuration. To establish a reference reactor system, calculations for LEU-fueled VHTR were performed and the results were used as the basis for comparative studies of the TRU-fueled systems. The LEU fuel is uranium oxide at 15% ²³⁵U enrichment. The results showed that the single-batch core lifetimes ranged between 5 and 7 years for all TRU fuels (3 years in LEU), providing prolonged operation on a single batch fuel loading. Transmutation efficiencies ranged between 19% and 27% for TRU-based fuels (13% in LEU). Total TRU material contents for disposal ranged between 730 and 808 kg per metric ton of initial heavy metal loading, reducing TRU inventory mass by as much as 27%. Decay heat and source terms of the discharged fuel were also calculated as part of the spent fuel disposal consideration. The results indicated strong potential of TRU-based fuel in VHTR.     

Management of actinide waste inventories in nuclear phase-out scenarios

The improvement of the “radiological cleanliness” of nuclear energy is a primary goal in the development of advanced reactors and fuel cycles. The multiple recycling of actinides in advanced nuclear systems with fast neutron spectra represents a key option for reducing the potential hazard from high-level waste, especially when the fuel cycle is fully closed. Such strategies, however, involve large inventories of radiotoxic, transuranic (TRU) nuclides in the nuclear park, both in-pile and out-of-pile. The management of these inventories with the help of actinide burners is likely to become an important issue, if nuclear energy systems are eventually phased out, i.e. replaced by other types of energy systems.     

Georgia Tech Studies of Sub-Critical Advanced Burner Reactors with a D-T Fusion Tokamak Neutron Source for the Transmutation of Spent Nuclear Fuel

The possibility that a tokamak D-T fusion neutron source, based on ITER physics and technology, could be used to drive sub-critical, fast-spectrum nuclear reactors fueled with the transuranics (TRU) in spent nuclear fuel discharged from conventional nuclear reactors has been investigated at Georgia Tech in a series of studies which are summarized in this paper. It is found that sub-critical operation of such fast transmutation reactors is advantageous in allowing longer fuel residence time, hence greater TRU burnup between fuel reprocessing stages, and in allowing higher TRU loading without compromising safety, relative to what could be achieved in a similar critical transmutation reactor. The required plasma and fusion technology operating parameter range of the fusion neutron source is generally within the anticipated operational range of ITER. The implications of these results for fusion development policy, if they hold up under more extensive and detailed analysis, is that a D-T fusion tokamak neutron source for a sub-critical transmutation reactor, built on the basis of the ITER operating experience, could possibly be a logical next step after ITER on the path to fusion electrical power reactors. At the same time, such an application would allow fusion to contribute to meeting the nation’s energy needs at an earlier stage by helping to close the fission reactor nuclear fuel cycle.     

Partitioning and transmutation studies at JAERI both under OMEGA program and High-Intensity Proton Accelerator Project

At the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI), active and comprehensive studies on partitioning and transmutation (P&T) of long-lived nuclear waste from the reprocessing processes of spent fuel has been carried out under the OMEGA program. Studies at JAERI include a design study of dedicated transmutation systems both of an MA burner fast reactor (ABR) and an accelerator-driven subcritical system (ADS), and the development of a high intensity proton accelerator as well as the development of partitioning process, nitride fuel fabrication/dry separation process technologies and nuclear data studies.

During the course of studies, JAERI developed the concept of the double-strata fuel cycle, in which a dedicated system is used for transmutation. Comparing the various transmutation systems, such as thermal neutron spectrum or fast neutron spectrum systems, power reactors or dedicated systems, from the viewpoints of reactor physics, nuclear fuel cycle and socio-technical issues, it was concluded that the ADS is the best option for transmutation of minor actinide(MA). JAERI, therefore, decided to concentrate its R&D efforts on the development of ADS and related technologies.

One of the goals of R&D is to provide a basis for designing demonstration facilities of ADS, aqueous partitioning process and nitride fuel fabrication and dry separation technologies. As the initial step toward this purpose, the construction of an ADS experimental facility is planned under the High-Intensity Proton Accelerator Project which JAERI and the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) are jointly proposing since 1998.

The paper discusses the some of the results of P&T studies and the outline of the High-Intensity Proton Accelerator Project under which ADS experimental facility will be constructed.     

A comparative study on recycling spent fuels in gas-cooled fast reactors

This study evaluates advanced Gas-cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) fuel cycle scenarios which are based on recycling spent nuclear fuel for the sustainability of nuclear energy. A 600 MWth GFR was used for the fuel cycle analysis, and the equilibrium core was searched with different fuel-to-matrix volume ratios such as 70/30 and 60/40. Two fuel cycle scenarios, i.e., a one-tier case combining a Light Water Reactor (LWR) and a GFR, and a two-tier case using an LWR, a Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR), and a GFR, were evaluated for mass flow and fuel cycle cost, and the results were compared to those of LWR once-through fuel cycle. The mass flow calculations showed that the natural uranium consumption can be reduced by more than 57% and 27% for the one-tier and two-tier cycles, respectively, when compared to the once-through fuel cycle. The transuranics (TRU) which pose a long-term problem in a high-level waste repository, can be significantly reduced in the multiple recycle operation of these options, resulting in more than 110 and 220 times reduction of TRU inventory to be geologically disposed for the one-tier and two-tier fuel cycles, respectively. The fuel cycle costs were estimated to be 9.4 and 8.6 USD/MWh for the one-tier fuel cycle when the GFR fuel-to-matrix volume ratio was 70/30 and 60/40, respectively. However the fuel cycle cost is reduced to 7.3 and 7.1 USD/MWh for the two-tier fuel cycle, which is even smaller than that of the once-through fuel cycle. In conclusion the GFR can provide alternative fuel cycle options to the once-through and other fast reactor fuel cycle options, by increasing the natural uranium utilization and reducing the fuel cycle cost.     

Effect of TRU fuel loading on core performance and plutonium production of FBR

The effect of trans-uranium (TRU) fuel loading on the reactor core performances as well as the actinide and isotopic plutonium compositions in the core and blanket regions has been analyzed based on the large FBR type. Isotopic plutonium composition of TRU fuel is less than that of MOX fuel except for Pu-238 composition which obtains relatively higher composition. A significant increase of plutonium vector composition is shown by Pu-238 for TRU fuel in the core region as well as its increasing value in the blanket region for doping MA case. Excess reactivity can be reduced significantly (5% at beginning of cycle) and an additional breeding gain can be obtained by TRU fuel in comparison with MOX fuel. Doping MA in the blanket regions reduces the criticality for a small reduction value (0.1%) and it gives a reduction value of breeding ratio. Loading MA in the core regions as TRU fuel composition gives relatively bigger effect to increase the void reactivity coefficient mean while it gives less effect for loading MA in the blanket regions. Similar to the void reactivity coefficient profile, loading MA is more effective to the change of Doppler coefficient in the core regions in comparison with loading MA in the blanket regions which gives slightly less negative Doppler coefficient. Obtained Pu-240 vector compositions in the core region are categorized as practically unusable composition for nuclear device based on the Pellaud's criterion. Less than 7% Pu-240 vector compositions in the blanket region are categorized as weapon grade composition for no doping MA case. Obtaining 9% of Pu-238 composition by doping MA 2% in the blanket regions is enough to increase the level of proliferation resistance for denaturing plutonium based on the Kessler's criterion.     

Investigation of the MSFR core physics and fuel cycle characteristics

The adoption of Th fuel in fast reactors is being reconsidered due to the potential favorable impact on actinide waste management and resource availability. A closed Th cycle leads to an actinide inventory with lower radiotoxicity and heat load for the first several thousands of years. Due to the typically low TRansUranic (TRU) Conversion Ratio (CR), Th can also be advantageous to expedite the consumption of legacy TRU. One of the main obstacles to the implementation of Th is the highly radioactive recycled fuel which requires remote handling under heavy shielding, inevitably penalizing economics and challenging conventional pin-based fuel manufacturing. From this perspective, the development of liquid-fuelled reactors, with Molten Salt Reactors regarded as the most promising, appears particularly attractive as fuel handling would be greatly simplified. The present paper investigates the fuel cycle performances of the reference GEN-IV Molten Salt Fast Reactor (MSFR) in terms of isotope evolution, radiotoxicity generation and safety-related parameters. Similarly to most MSR concepts proposed in the past, the MSFR is based on the fluoride molten salt technology, but it features the novelty of a fast neutron spectrum. Calculations are performed using state-of-the-art equilibrium-cycle methodologies, i.e., the ERANOS-based EQL3D procedure developed at the Paul Scherrer Institut and extended to the simulation of the MSFR. Selected results have been benchmarked with the Monte Carlo code PSG2/SERPENT. These results have also been used for the assessment of a diffusion module based on the COMSOL multi-physics toolkit, which is the subject of current studies aimed at efficiently simulating the peculiar MSFR transient behavior.     

Some aspects of risk reduction strategy by multiple recycling in fast burner reactors of the plutonium and minor actinide inventories

This paper shows the impact of recycling light water reactor (LWR) mixed oxide (MOX) fuel in a fast burner reactor on the plutonium (Pu) and minor actinide (MA) inventories and on the related radioactivities. Reprocessing of the targets for multiple recycling will become increasingly difficult as the burnup increases. Multiple recycling of Pu + MA in fast reactors is a feasible option which has to be studied very carefully: the Pu (except the isotopes Pu-238 and Pu-240), Am and Np levels decrease as a function of the recycle number, while the Cm-244 level accumulates and gradually transforms into Cm-245. Long cooling times (10 + 2 years) are necessary with aqueous processing. The paper discusses the problems associated with multiple reprocessing of highly active fuel types and particularly the impact of Pu-238, Am-241 and Cm-244 on the fuel cycle operations. The calculations were performed with the zero-dimensional ORIGEN-2 code. The validity of the results depends on that of the code and its cross-section library. The time span to reduce the initial inventory of Pu + MA by a factor of 10 amounts to 255 years when average burnups are limited to 150 GW · d t⁻¹ (tonne).     

Some aspects of risk reduction strategy by multiple recycling in fast burner reactors of the plutonium and minor actinide inventories

The paper shows the impact of recycling LWR-MOX fuel in a fast burner reactor on the plutonium (Pu) and minor actinide (MA) inventories and on the related radio activities. Reprocessing of the targets for multiple recycling will become increasingly difficult as the burn up increases. Multiple recycling of Pu + MA in fast reactors is a feasible option which has to be studied very carefully: the Pu (except the isotopes Pu-238 and Pu-240), Am and Np levels decrease as a function of the recycle number, while the Cm-244 level accumulates and gradually transforms into Cm-245. Long cooling times (10 + 2 years) are necessary with aqueous processing.The paper discusses the problems associated with multiple reprocessing of highly active fuel types and particularly the impact of Pu-238, Am-241 and Cm-244 on the fuel cycle operations. The calculations were performed with the zero-dimensional ORIGEN-2 code. The validity of the results depends on that of the code and its cross section library. The time span to reduce the initial inventory of Pu + MA by a factor of 10, amounts to 255 years when average burn ups are limited to 150 GWd t⁻¹.     

Necessity of nuclear fuel cycle closure

The results of a systems study confirming on a new level the need to develop fast reactors with a closed nuclear fuel cycle and the best transition times to a closed nuclear fuel cycle are presented. The results obtained show that nuclear fuel cycle closure is a necessary step for developing large-scale nuclear power in the country. Nuclear fuel cycle closure using fast reactors with inherent safety is justified economically even now.     

Comparison of sodium and lead-cooled fast reactors regarding reactor physics aspects, severe safety and economical issues

A large number of new fast reactors may be needed earlier than foreseen in the Generation IV plans. According to the median forecast of the Special Report on Emission Scenarios commissioned by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Control nuclear power will increase by a factor of four by 2050. The drivers for this expected boost are the increasing energy demand in developing countries, energy security, but also climate concerns. However, staying with a once-through cycle will lead to both a substantially increased amount of high-level nuclear waste and an upward pressure on the price of uranium and even concerns about its availability in the coming decades. Therefore, it appears wise to accelerate the development of fast reactors and efficient re-processing technologies.In this paper, two fast reactor systems are discussed—the sodium-cooled fast reactor, which has already been built and can be further improved, and the lead-cooled fast reactor that could be developed relatively soon. An accelerated development of the latter is possible due to the sizeable experience on lead/bismuth eutectic coolant in Russian Alpha-class submarine reactors and the research efforts on accelerator-driven systems in the EU and other countries.First, comparative calculations on critical masses, fissile enrichments and burn-up swings of mid-sized SFRs and LFRs (600 MW_e) are presented. Monte Carlo transport and burn-up codes were used in the analyses. Moreover, Doppler and coolant temperature and axial fuel expansion reactivity coefficients were also evaluated with MCNP and subsequently used in the European Accident Code-2 to calculate reactivity transients and unprotected Loss-of-Flow (ULOF) and Loss-of-Heat Sink (ULOHS) accidents. Further, ULOFs as well as decay heat removal (protected Total Loss-of-Power, TLOP) were calculated with the STAR-CD CFD code for both systems.We show that LFRs and SFRs can be used both as burners and as self-breeders, homogeneously incinerating minor actinides. The tight pin lattice SFRs (P/D = 1.2) appears to have a better neutron economy than wide channel LFRs (P/D = 1.6), resulting in larger BOL actinide inventories and lower burn-up swings for LFRs. The reactivity burn-up swing of an LFR self-breeder employing BeO moderator pins could be limited to 1.3$ in 1 year. For a 600 MW_e LFR burner, LWR-to-burner support ratio was about two for (U, TRU)O₂-fuelled system, while it increased to approximately 2.8 when (Th, TRU)O₂ fuel was employed. The corresponding figures for an SFR were somewhat lower. The calculations revealed that LFRs have an advantage over SFRs in coping with the investigated severe accident initiators (ULOF, ULOHS, TLOP). The reason is better natural circulation behavior of LFR systems and the much higher boiling temperature of lead. A ULOF accident in an LFR only leads to a 220 K coolant outlet temperature increase whereas for an SFR the coolant may boil. Regarding the economics, the LFR seems to have an advantage since it does not require an intermediate coolant circuit. However, it was also proposed to avoid an intermediate coolant circuit in an SFR by using a supercritical CO₂ Brayton cycle. But in an LFR, the reduced concern about air and water ingress may decrease its cost further.     

Uranium-based TRU multi-recycling with thermal neutron HTGR to reduce environmental burden and threat of nuclear proliferation

To reduce environmental burden and threat of nuclear proliferation, multi-recycling fuel cycle with high temperature gas-cooled reactor has been investigated. Those problems are solved by incinerating trans-uranium (TRU) nuclides, which is composed of plutonium and minor actinoid, and there is concept to realize TRU incineration by multi-recycling with fast breeder reactor. In this study, multi-recycling is realized even with a thermal reactor by feeding fissile uranium from outside of the fuel cycle instead of breeding fissile nuclide. In this fuel cycle, recovered uranium and natural uranium are enriched and mixed with recovered TRU to fabricate fresh fuels.

The fuel cycle was designed for a gas turbine high temperature reactor (GTHTR300). Reprocessing is assumed as existing reprocessing with four-group partitioning technology.

As a result, the TRU nuclides excluding neptunium can be recycled by the proposed cycle. The duration of potential toxicity decaying to natural uranium level can be reduced to approximately 300 years, and the footprint of repository for high-level waste can be reduced by 99.7% compared with the standard case. Surplus plutonium is not generated by this cycle. Moreover, incineration of TRU from light water reactor cycle can be performed in this cycle.     

Radiation Characteristics of Fuel and Wastes in the Uranium–Plutonium and Thorium–Uranium Fuel Cycle

The radiation characteristics of fuel cycles of various reactors – replacement candidates in the future nuclear power – are compared. Proceeding from the basic requirements (safety, fuel supply, and nonproliferation of fissioning materials), inherently safe fast reactors of the BREST type can be used as the basis for large-scale nuclear power. Thermal reactors, which can burn enriched uranium, thorium–uranium fuel, or mixed uranium–plutonium fuel with makeup with fissioning materials from fast reactors, will operate for a long time simultaneously with fast reactors in the future nuclear power. VVÉR-1000 and CANDU reactors are examined as representatives of thermal reactors; for each of these reactors the operation in various variants of the fuel cycle is simulated. It is shown that with respect to radiation characteristics of the fuel and wastes the thorium–uranium fuel cycle has no great advantages over the uranium–plutonium cycle.     

Physics features comparison of TRU burners: Fusion/Fission Hybrids,Accelerator-Driven Systems and low conversion ratio critical fast reactors

This paper compares different types of TRU burners, sub-critical (as Accelerator-Driven Systems and Fusion Fission Hybrids) but also critical, low conversion ratio, fast reactors. To make a significant comparison, it is specified for which objective and within which strategy these systems can be envisaged. Beside intrinsic cost parameters, the associated fuel cycle issues can prove to be crucial for their deployment.     

Advanced fuel cycle scenarios for High Temperature Gas Reactors

This study evaluates nuclear fuel cycle scenarios which are based on recycling spent nuclear fuel for the sustainability of nuclear energy. Three fuel cycle scenarios, the Light Water Reactor (LWR)–Advanced Recycling Reactor (ARR) recycle, the LWR–High Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR)–ARR recycle, and the HTGR partial recycling fuel cycle, are assessed for their mass flow and electricity generation costs and the results are compared to those of the LWR once-through fuel cycle. The spent fuels are recycled in both the Consolidated Fuel Treatment Center and the Actinide Management Island, which are capable of reprocessing spent fuels by Uranium Extraction and Pyrochemical processes, respectively. The mass flow calculations show that the Transuranics (TRU) which have a long-term radiation effect can be completely burned in the recycling fuel cycles, resulting in 350, 450 and 6 times reduction of TRU inventory for the LWR–ARR, LWR–HTGR–ARR and HTGR partial recycling fuel cycles, respectively, when compared to the once-through fuel cycle. The electricity generation costs of these fuel cycle scenarios were estimated to be 39.1, 34.9 and 25.7 USD/MW h(e), which are comparable to or smaller than that of the once-through fuel cycle. Although the candidate fuel cycles adopt reprocessing options which raise fuel cycle cost, increase in uranium cost and the advanced design of the HTGR can further reduce the advanced fuel cycle costs of the HTGR.     

Proliferation-resistant fuel options for thermal and fast reactors avoiding neptunium production

Sustainable nuclear energy production requires reuse of spent nuclear fuel while avoiding its misuse. In the paper we assume that plutonium with sufficiently high content of the Pu-238 isotope (about 6% or more) and americium from spent nuclear fuel are proliferation-resistant. On the other hand, neptunium should be considered as material that is fissionable in a fast neutron spectrum and could be misused.We also assume that plutonium denatured by Pu-238 can be produced in nuclear reactors of, e.g. nuclear weapon states and used for fuel fabrication there or in multilateral reprocessing and re-fabrication centers as suggested by IAEA. Then the fabricated fuel can be utilized in nuclear reactors everywhere provided that the reactors may operate safely and the fuel remains proliferation-resistant after utilization. Options to meet these criteria are investigated in the paper for two reactor types: pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and fast reactors (FRs).In PWRs, the investigated fresh fuel compositions include denatured plutonium and depleted uranium mixed with a small amount of U-233, thorium and, optionally, with americium, presence of U-233 making the coolant void effect negative. In FRs, use of americium makes plutonium denatured, both for the burner (without fertile blanket) and breeder options. It is shown that the proposed design and fuel options are proliferation-resistant, the generation of neptunium being very low. Safety parameters are acceptable. Advanced aqueous or pyrochemical reprocessing for plutonium/thorium/uranium fuel and related fuel re-fabrication technology applying remote handling may become necessary to realize the considered fuel cycles.