Selection guide of insert piece shape for steel joint by autocompleting friction welding method

Abstract

An autocompleting friction welding method, which was developed by the authors, is to weld with using a rotating insert piece set between fixed base metals. This paper describes the selection guide of the insert piece size for steel joints by the autocompleting friction welding method. The base metal was low carbon steel (LCS), and the weld faying surface of the fixed specimen had a 10 mm diameter. The effect of the thickness at the bottom of the grooves for the insert piece (groove bottom thickness) on the joining phenomena was investigated. When the joint was made at a friction pressure of 90 MPa with a friction speed of 27·5 s^?1, the insert piece had a shear fracture towards the circumferential direction (circumferential shear fracture) in the peripheral portion of the weld interfaces by the initial peak produced during the friction process. In this case, the insert piece had the following dimensions: the thickness was 4·0 mm, and the groove bottom thickness was 1·2 mm or over with an inner groove diameter of 11 mm. In particular, the joint with a groove bottom thickness of 1·2 mm had 100% joint efficiency and the LCS base metal fracture with no crack at the weld interface. The value of a circumferential shear fracture (CSF value) was defined and calculated by the ratio between the theoretical and the actual generated friction torques. When the CSF value nearly equalled 1, the joint had 100% joint efficiency and the LCS base metal fracture with no crack at the weld interface.     

Joint properties and its improvement of high-tensile strength steel joint by autocompleting friction welding method

This paper describes the improvement of properties of a high-tensile strength steel joint by an autocompleting friction welding method that was developed by the authors. The base metal was high-tensile strength steel of 800 MPa class. The weld faying surface of the fixed specimen had a 10 mm diameter, and the effect of the thickness and that at the bottom of the grooves (groove bottom thickness) for the insert piece on the joining phenomena and joint properties were investigated. The value of a circumferential shear fracture (CSF value) was defined and calculated by the ratio between the theoretical and the actual generated friction torques. When the CSF value was lower than 1, the insert piece had the CSF before the friction torque reached the initial peak. Also, when the CSF value was larger than 1, the insert piece had the CSF after the friction torque reached the initial peak. When the joint was made at the insert thickness of 5 mm with the CSF value of nearly 1, it had 100% joint efficiency although it had the softened region near the weld interfaces. The joint had cracks at the weld interface when it was made with friction pressures of 36 and 120 MPa. However, the joint had no crack at the weld interface when it was made with a friction pressure of 90 MPa. When the joint was made at the insert thickness of 4 mm with the CSF value of nearly 1, it had also 100% joint efficiency although it had the softened region near the weld interfaces. However, the softened region at the weld interface of the joint with the insert thickness of 4 mm was lower than that with 5 mm. Also, this joint had 90° bend ductility with no crack at the weld interface. In conclusion, it was possible to make a joint with no cracks for high-tensile strength steel by an autocompleting friction welding method.     

The PELS‐01 microprocessor for determination of the parameters of arc welding

Summary

SCM440H steel bar to S45C steel bar welds (both of 25 mm dia.)(Part I) and SCM440H steel pipe (with an OD of 25 mm and ID of 14 mm) to S45C steel bar (of 25 mm dia.) welds (Part II) were produced, and the effect of the faying surface gradient on the properties of the friction-welded joints was investigated. The friction welding conditions were a rotational speed of 3000 rpm, preheating pressure of 20 MPa, friction pressure of 50 MPa, upset pressure of 120 MPa, and burn-off length control of 4.0 mm. Friction welding was performed with base metals with and without gradients to the faying surfaces. The results obtained may be summarised as follows.

Part I: At faying surface gradients up to 8.6/100 in the SCM base metal and up to 12.0/100 in the S45C base metal, the joints sustain tensile fracture in the S45C base metal. At any higher gradients, however, tensile fracture occurs in the weld interface. The fracture initiation point in the case of weld interface fracture is located at the periphery of the weld interface. Fractographic observations suggest that the fracture initiation zone is a dimple fracture surface containing numerous fine oxide particles in the bases of the dimples. The defect producing this type of fracture cannot be detected by ultrasonic flaw detection using the water immersion technique.

Part II: In the SCM base metal, the joints sustain tensile fracture in the HAZ of the SCM steel at a gradient up to 2.8/100. At any higher gradient, however, fracture occurs by a combination of weld interface fracture and HAZ fracture of the SCM steel. In the S45C base metal, fracture occurs in the HAZ of the SCM base metal at gradients up to 2.4/100. At gradients up to 6.0/100, the fracture behaviour found is much like that affecting SCM steel joints with a gradient. At any higher gradient, however, the joints sustain weld interface fracture.     

Joining phenomena and joint strength of friction welded joint between pure aluminium and low carbon steel

Abstract

This paper describes the joining phenomena and joint strength of friction welded joints between pure aluminium (P-Al) and low carbon steel friction welds. When the joint was made at a friction pressure of 30 MPa with a friction speed of 27·5 s^?1, the upsetting (deformation) occurred at the P-Al base metal. P-Al transferred to the half radius region of the weld interface on the low carbon steel side, and then it transferred toward the entire weld interface. When the joint was made at a friction time of 0·9 s, i.e. just after the initial peak of the friction torque, it had ～93% joint efficiency and fractured on the P-Al side. This joint had no intermetallic compound at the weld interface. Then, the joint efficiency slightly decreased with increasing friction time. The joint had a small amount of intermetallic compound at the peripheral region of the weld interface when it was made at a friction time of 2·0 s. When the joint was made at a friction time of 0·9 s, the joint efficiency decreased with increasing forge pressure, and all joints were fractured at the P-Al side. Although the joint by forge pressure of 90 MPa had hardly softened region, it had ～83% joint efficiency. To clarify the fact of decreasing joint efficiency, the tensile strength of the P-Al base metal at room temperature was investigated, and the tensile test was carried out after various compression stresses and temperatures. The tensile strength of the P-Al base metal has decreased with increasing compression stress at any temperature. Hence, the fact that the joint did not achieve 100% joint efficiency was due to the decrease in the tensile strength of the P-Al base metal by the Bauschinger effect. To obtain higher joint efficiency and fracture on the P-Al side, the joint should be made without higher forge pressure, and with the friction time at which the friction torque reaches the initial peak.     

Effect of friction welding condition on joining phenomena and joint strength of friction welded joint between brass and low carbon steel

Abstract

This paper describes the effect of friction welding condition on joining phenomena and joint strength of friction welded joints between copper–zinc alloy (brass) and low carbon steel (LCS). When the joint was made at a friction pressure of 30 MPa with a friction speed of 27·5 s^?1, brass transferred to the half radius region of the weld interface on the LCS side. Then, transferred brass extended towards the almost whole weld interface with increasing friction time. The joint efficiency increased with increasing friction time, and then the joint obtained 100% and the brass base metal fracture when the joint was made with a friction time of 4·2 s or longer. However, the fact that all joints had some cracks at the periphery portion of the weld interface was due to a deficiency of transferred brass at the periphery portion on the weld interface of the LCS side. On the other hand, brass transferred to the peripheral region of the weld interface on the LCS side, and then transferred towards the entire weld interface when the joint was made at a friction pressure of 90 MPa with a friction speed of 27·5 s^?1. The joint efficiency increased with increasing friction time, and it reached 100% at a friction time of 1·5 s or longer. In addition, all joints fractured from the brass base metal with no cracking at the weld interface. To obtain 100% joint efficiency and the brass base metal fracture with no cracking at the weld interface, the joint should be made with opportune high friction pressure and friction time at which the entire weld interface had the transferred brass.     

Ultrasonic welding of heat-treatable aluminium alloy A6061 sheet

In this study, the authors applied the ultrasonic welding method to weld A6061 heat treatable aluminium alloy and investigated the effects of clamping load and welding time on the properties of the weld. In addition, in order to improve the strength of the joint, the effectiveness of the ethanol droplet on the faying surface was examined. The following results were obtained.

The joint strength increased with clamping load and welding time. The fracture of the joint produced under the welding conditions of 1176 N clamping load and 1.5 s welding time occurred in the base metal. The ethanol droplet on the faying surface successfully produced the joint with a strength equivalent to that of the base metal under the welding conditions of smaller clamping load and shorter welding time than the case without ethanol droplet. The softening around the welded area that was performed with the ethanol droplet was smaller than that in the welded area produced by other methods such as TIG and friction stir welding. The fracture surface of the joint welded with the ethanol droplet was remarkably irregular and rough. A dimple pattern was observed over a wide area, indicating that the welded area was significantly expanded. The ethanol droplet made the temperature of the weld area higher than that without ethanol, resulting in improved joint strength with an increase of the plastic deformation at the interface.     

搅拌摩擦焊和熔化极气体保护焊6082铝合金疲劳性能分析

对10 mm厚6082-T6铝合金进行搅拌摩擦焊(FSW)和熔化极气体保护焊(MIG焊)焊接,利用疲劳性能试验机、光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜等手段对6082铝合金FSW和MIG焊接头的疲劳力学性能、微观组织、裂纹扩展特征、疲劳断口进行了分析. 结果表明,在疲劳寿命为2×106周次时,6082铝合金母材及其FSW和MIG焊接头的名义应力分别为126.3,110.2,84.2 MPa;在高应力水平下(Δσ=160 MPa),FSW接头疲劳寿命明显大于MIG焊接头、与母材的疲劳寿命相当. MIG焊疲劳断口均位于焊趾处,焊缝内的气孔缺陷为其主要裂纹源;FSW疲劳断口大多发生在轴肩边缘. 接头的微观断口具有准解理特征,断口中存在疲劳条纹和韧窝.     

Development of autocompleting friction welding method

Abstract

This paper describes an autocompleting friction welding method that was carried out to weld with an insert piece set between fixed base metals. The base metal was low carbon steel, and the faying surface of the fixed specimen had a 10 mm diameter. The effect of the thickness of the insert piece (insert thickness) on the joining phenomena was investigated. When the insert thickness was 3˙2 mm and the friction welding conditions were a friction speed of 27˙5 s^–1 and friction pressure of 36 MPa, the insert piece had a shear fracture toward the circumferential direction in the peripheral portion of the weld interfaces by the initial peak produced during the friction process. The joint also had cracks at the adjacent region of the weld interfaces, although it had the same tensile strength as the base metal. On the other hand, the joint made using the insert piece with a groove on its peripheral portion had the same tensile strength as the base metal, where it fractured. This joint also had 90° bend ductility without cracks. In this case, the optimum insert thickness was 4˙0 mm, and the thickness at the bottom of the grooves (groove bottom thickness) was 1˙2 mm with an 11 mm inner groove diameter, and the friction welding conditions were a friction speed of 27˙5 s^–1 and friction pressure of 36 MPa. In conclusion, a sound friction welded joint was made by an autocompleting friction welding method.     

Strength enhancement of autocompleting medium and high carbon steels friction welded joints

An autocompleting friction welding method, which was developed by the authors, is to weld with using a rotating insert piece set between fixed workpieces. The conditions to enhance the strength of the welded joint in an autocompleting friction welding method which involves a rotating insert between the fixed workpieces were determined. The weld faying surface of the fixed specimen had a 10 mm diameter. When MCS joint was made at an insert thickness of 4 mm through a friction pressure of 36 MPa, it did not achieve 100% joint efficiency because the weld interfaces were not completely joined. MCS joint had 100% joint efficiency and fractured on the MCS base metal although the crack was generated at the weld interface, when that was made at an inner groove diameter of 11 mm with the bottom of the grooves for the insert piece (groove bottom thickness) of 0.9 mm or more through a friction pressure of 90 MPa. To obtain a joint with no cracks, MCS joint was made with an inner groove diameter of 12 mm at a friction pressure of 90 MPa. When the groove bottom thickness was 0.75 mm, MCS joint had 100% joint efficiency and the MCS base metal fracture with no crack at the weld interface. When HCS joint was made with an inner groove diameter of 11 mm at friction pressures of 90 and 150 MPa, it did not achieve 100% joint efficiency because the weld interfaces were not joined completely. The weld interfaces of HCS joint at a friction pressure of 120 MPa were completely joined although it did not achieve 100% joint efficiency. To improve the joint efficiency, HCS joint was made with an insert thickness of 5 mm, a groove bottom thickness of 0.64 mm, and an inner groove diameter of 12 mm with a friction pressure of 120 MPa. HCS joint had 100% joint efficiency and fractured on the HCS base metal with no crack at the weld interface.     

Microstructure and Fatigue Properties of Laser Welded DP590 Dual-Phase Steel Joints

In this paper, cold-rolled DP590 dual-phase steel sheets with 1.5 mm thickness were butt-welded by a fiber laser, and the evolution and effect on microhardness, tensile property and fatigue property of the welded joint microstructure were studied. The results showed that the base metal is composed of ferrite and martensite, with the martensite dispersed in the ferrite matrix in an island manner. The microstructure of the weld zone was lath-shaped martensite that can be refined further by increasing the welding speed, while the heat-affected zone was composed of ferrite and tempered martensite. The microhardness increased with increasing welding speed, and the hardness reached its highest value—393.8 HV—when the welding speed was 5 m/min. Static tensile fracture of the welded joints always occurred in the base metal, and the elongation at break was more than 16%. The conditional fatigue limits of the base metal and the weld joints were 354.2 and 233.6 MPa, respectively, under tension–tension fatigue tests with a stress rate of 0.1. After observation of the fatigue fracture morphology, it was evident that the fatigue crack of the base metal had sprouted into the surface pits and that its expansion would be accelerated under the action of a secondary crack. The fatigue source of the welded joint was generated in the weld zone and expanded along the martensite, forming a large number of fatigue striations. Transient breaking, which occurred in the heat-affected zone of the joint as a result of the formation of a large number of dimples, reflected the obvious characteristics of ductile fracture.     

Friction stir welding of aluminium lap joint by tool without probe

A friction stir welding process, with a rotating tool without a probe, was employed and applied to a lap joint of aluminium plate. The thickness of the aluminium plates was 0.5 mm. New tool shapes were developed. The tops of the tool were dome shaped. In this process, the rotating tool was plunged into the aluminium plate. The tool-rotating axis was vertical to the specimen surface, and then moved in the welding direction at a speed of 20 mm/s. Tool rotation speed was 18,000 rpm.

At tool plunge depths of 0.1 mm or over, it was possible to weld the two plates. At tool plunge depth of 0.1 mm, its joint was fractured at the weld interface. At tool plunge depth of 0.2 mm or over, the joints were fractured at the stir zone of the upper plate or the heat affected zone of the lower plate. Based on observation of the hardness profiles and the thickness change of the weld area, controlling factors of the joint strength are discussed.     

Effect of post-weld heat treatment on joint properties of friction welded joint between brass and low carbon steel

Abstract

This paper describes the effect of post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on joint properties of copper–zinc alloy (brass) and low carbon steel friction welded joints. The as-welded joint obtained 100% joint efficiency and the brass base metal fracture without cracking at the weld interface, and had no intermetallic compound layer. The joint efficiency with PWHT decreased with increasing heating temperature and its holding time, and its scatter increased with those increasing parameters. When the joint was heat treated at 823 K for 360 ks, it did not achieve 100% joint efficiency and fractured between the weld interface and the brass base metal although it had no intermetallic compound. The cracking at the peripheral portion of the weld interface was generated through PWHT. The cracking was due to the dezincification and the embrittlement of the brass side during PWHT.     

Analysis of acoustic and optical signals used as a basis for controlling laser‐welding processes

Stud joints of 2017 aluminium alloy were friction welded and its joint strength was examined. A stair zone was formed at the weld interface. Although the hardness of the stair zone was almost the same as base metals, the heat-affected zone of the bar and the plate was softened. The tensile strength of joints tended to increase with a pressure and a friction time, and the highest tensile strength was 275 MPa (63.1% joint efficiency for the bar base metal). In the bending testing, joints were cracked in the weld zone at a bending angle of less than 5°. In the fatigue testing, joints fractured near the weld interface and the fatigue strength of joints increased as the tensile strength of joints was high.     

Joining phenomena and joint strength of friction welded joint between aluminium–magnesium alloy (AA5052) and low carbon steel

Abstract

The joining phenomena and the joint strength of an Al–Mg alloy (AA5052) and low carbon steel (LCS) friction welded joints were investigated. The weld interface of the LCS side at a friction time of 1·2 s had a slightly transferred AA5052, and then the entire weld interface had it at a friction time of 3·0 s or longer. The joint efficiency increased with increasing friction time, but it decreased at a friction time of 12·0 s or longer. The joint at a friction time of 3·0 s with forge pressure of 190 MPa had 100% joint efficiency and the AA5052 base metal fracture with no crack at the weld interface. The weld interface of these joints also had no intermetallic compound. On the other hand, the joint at a friction time of 8·0 s, which had ～97% joint efficiency, fractured between the AA5052 side and the weld interface because it had the intermetallic compound at the weld interface.     

980MPa高强钢焊接接头薄弱环节的确定

通过在低温下进行拉伸试验、冲击试验以及扫描电镜下的断口观察,对屈服强度为980 MPa新型高强钢的MAG和TIG焊接接头的性能和断裂机理进行了研究,并在此基础上确定焊接接头的薄弱环节,提出其薄弱环节对接头整体性能的影响规律.结果表明,这两种焊接方法焊缝金属的抗拉强度与母材相差不大,但其断面收缩率有所降低;焊缝金属尤其原...     

镁锂合金搅拌摩擦焊接工艺特性分析

针对退火态的MBLS10-200镁锂合金,分析了搅拌工具、焊接工艺参数对焊缝成形、接头组织特征及力学性能的影响,并对接头的塑性损失机理及提升技术进行分析.结果表明,在焊缝成形良好的工艺参数范围内（转速800~1 600 r/min、焊接速度200~500 mm/min）,接头大多断在母材,强度与母材相当,而断后伸长率则有显著的降低,仅为母材的8%~57%.焊核及热力影响区与母材性能的差异使接头在受拉时产生各区域变形不协调是导致断后伸长率下降的根本原因.采用退火处理可以在接头强度不下降的同时,有效提升接头断后伸长率,可达到母材的96%.     

TC21+TC4-DT线性摩擦焊接头组织与力学性能试验

针对高强TC21和中强TC4-DT异种钛合金进行线性摩擦焊工艺研究,对接头进行不同热处理,接头微观组织和力学性能进行试验分析. 结果表明,TC21 + TC4-DT线性摩擦焊接头飞边成形良好,飞边表面光滑根部无明显缺陷存在;焊态条件下焊缝组织为典型的魏氏组织结构特征,热处理后焊缝组织析出弥散的针状α相,随着热处理温度的升高析出的针状α相逐渐长大粗化,致使接头冲击和断裂性能先上升后下降;接头拉伸性能与TC4-DT母材相当;700℃/3 h热处理接头、母材高周疲劳性能试验结果表明,接头的疲劳极限达到558 MPa,与TC4-DT基体相当,焊缝组织细化是提高接头疲劳极限的重要原因.     

铝锂合金机器人搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和性能

为降低焊接压力以适应机器人搅拌摩擦焊接的需求,采用小尺寸轴肩,在较低焊接载荷下进行搅拌摩擦焊接试验. 以单位面积焊缝热输入相同为控制原则,研究了搅拌头轴肩尺寸对2 mm厚2060-T8铝锂合金搅拌摩擦焊接过程压力、焊缝成形、接头微观组织及力学性能的影响. 结果表明,随着搅拌头轴肩尺寸的减小,所需焊接压力呈非线性下降,且稳定焊接过程中载荷振幅值降低. 当轴肩尺寸为4 mm时,焊缝表面形成较大飞边,且接头内部产生孔洞缺陷,当轴肩尺寸大于6 mm时,能获得表面成形良好且内部无缺陷的接头. 当轴肩尺寸为6 mm时,焊接压力为2 800 N,焊核区平均晶粒尺寸为0.52 μm,接头抗拉强度达到最大为396 MPa,为母材的74.1%,显微硬度呈“U”形分布,断裂位置为焊核区,断裂方式为韧—脆混合型断裂.     

TC17钛合金线性摩擦焊接头组织及力学性能分析

针对固溶时效态TC17钛合金焊态及焊后热处理态线性摩擦焊接头,进行显微组织及力学性能对比分析. 结果表明,焊态时焊缝组织发生了回复与再结晶,由于焊后冷却速度较快,生成了亚稳定β相,焊缝区发生了软化;热力影响区组织沿受力变形方向拉长、细化、交替呈带状分布,加工硬化程度较高,显微硬度明显高于其它区域;热影响区由于二次次生α相基本溶解于亚稳定β相,导致显微硬度显著降低. 经过焊后热处理,亚稳定β相发生时效分解,析出了弥散程度更高的针状次生α相使得焊接区硬度大幅度提高. 由于亚稳定相的生成,焊态接头发生软化,拉伸均断裂在焊缝区,抗拉强度达到母材强度91.8%,断口呈脆性断裂形态;焊后热处理态接头由于二次次生α相的析出,起到弥散强化的作用,拉伸试验均断在母材,断口呈典型韧性断裂形态.     

大热输入焊接EH36船板钢接头力学性能

以EH36高强度船板钢为研究对象,通过拉伸和冲击分析试验手段,对EH36船板钢不同热输入埋弧焊接头进行了力学性能测试,同时采用扫描电镜对冲击试样断口形貌进行分析.结果表明,所有断裂均发生在拉伸试样的母材区,EH36船板钢在大焊接热输入条件下,焊缝和焊接热影响区的强度好于母材,并没有出现热影响区软化现象;随着焊接热输入增加焊缝的冲击韧性降低,从焊缝和熔合区断口形貌来看,断裂类型为韧性断裂和准解理断裂的混合断裂.随着远离熔合线距离的增加,冲击吸收功有增加的趋势,在距离熔合线4 mm处的冲击吸收功跟母材接近,说明该位置处韧性基本不受焊接热循环的影响.