考虑需求侧响应的风电并网系统旋转备用优化

随着新能源的快速发展,风电并网的规模逐渐扩大,由于风电出力的不确定性,风电消纳已成为新能源发展的主要挑战。考虑常规机组同时参与主辅市场,并融入需求侧资源可中断负荷及用电激励参与辅助服务市场,建立源荷协调的双层优化模型。上层模型以发电成本和弃风成本最小为优化目标,确定常规机组出力和风电计划出力;在上层优化结果基础上,下层针对常规机组调峰能力不足导致的弃风和失负荷情况,考虑用电激励和可中断负荷为备用资源,建立以发电侧旋转备用成本、用电激励成本、可中断负荷成本及失负荷损失和弃风损失的条件价值风险最小为目标的优化模型,得到旋转备用容量优化购买量。以修正的IEEE 6机30节点系统进行算例研究,仿真结果表明所建模型能有效提高系统经济性及风电消纳水平。     

国际光伏发电激励政策的变化和启示

2008年很多国家都修订或颁布实施了新的光伏发电激励政策。在全球金融危机和光伏激励政策变化的共同影响下,2008年第4季度全球光伏市场陷入了危机之中。本文着重介绍了全球主要光伏市场国家——西班牙、德国、美国和日本等光伏激励政策的变化和内容,总结分析了全球光伏激励政策的走势,并在此基础上提出了对我国光伏激励政策的思考和建议。     

Modelling and analysis of resource scheduling in restructured power systems considering wind energy uncertainty

Concerns over rapid transformation of global climate patterns resulted in wide deployment of renewable energy sources especially wind energy. However, intermittent nature of wind energy makes resource scheduling aspect of system operator more complex. The emerging deregulation policies have added to the complexity of scheduling problem. Therefore, treating and scheduling of wind energy on deterministic basis would result in non-optimal energy dispatch and increased operation cost over scheduling horizon. This paper focuses on optimal scheduling methodology of wind energy in day ahead market (DAM) considering expected costs due to wind uncertainty in real time (RT) spot market under deregulated market structure. This paper introduces various possible costs, namely, spot market compensation cost, additional reserve cost and rescheduling cost applicable to deviation in scheduled power from DAM to spot market. The costs can be derived from front-end information of DAM, historical and statistical estimate of RT market conditions. The effectiveness of proposed methodology is examined using IEEE 30 bus system with thermal and wind energy generators. In addition, sensitivity analysis is performed to examine the effect of incentive margin on DAM scheduling. Simulation results are presented, discussed and affirmed the effectiveness of proposed scheduling methodology.     

Outlook for solar water heaters in Taiwan

The share of indigenous energy supply continuously decreases over the last two decades in Taiwan. The development and use of renewable energy sources and technologies are becoming vital for the management of energy supply and demand. For promotion of solar water heaters, the incentive programs were firstly initiated in the period of 1986–1991 and re-initiated from 2000 to the present. These programs create an economic incentive for the end users and have a drastic effect on the popularization of solar water heaters. To further promote solar water heaters during the current incentive program period, several key factors are addressed. In addition to the cost of solar water heaters and energy price index, the potential market of solar water heaters in Taiwan is associated with the climatic conditions, population structure, urbanization, building type of housing and status of new construction.     

Household photovoltaic market in Xining, Qinghai province, China: the role of local PV business

This paper assesses the present and future market for household photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural Northwest China, especially from the PV commerce at Xining, Qinghai Province. This unsubsidised free market is now met by the emerging PV industry in China, which includes cell and module manufacturers, and PV system distributors and assemblers. For widespread deployment of such a renewable energy technology, the development of a local free market seems more successful than donor- or ‘government subsidy’-driven programmes. Presently, there is a thriving infant PV industry in Northwest China, mostly centred in Xining. Xining-based PV sales companies have extensive networks for selling, marketing and servicing household PV systems for rural farmers and nomads. Small systems are now ordinary items on sale in local shops. Based on interviews and fieldwork observations with seven major PV sales companies in Xining, the household PV market is assessed from the present business operations of these companies. Detail of primary sources is given with the aim of archiving seminal progress in the history of photovoltaic power. The results suggest that although the household PV market will continue to grow, current government and international sponsored PV programmes can create both opportunities and barriers for the infant PV market and industry in China.     

Development of an integrated multi‐objective optimization model for determining the optimal solar incentive design

To promote the deployment of the solar photovoltaic (PV) system from the long‐term perspective, the solar PV industry in many countries still needs the financial support from the government despite its remarkable growth and price reductions in the last decade. Many countries with this financial burden on their government budget, however, are planning to reduce or to expire the financial support step by step. To bring the solar PV market to its full maturity, it is crucial to improve the solar policies and to sustain the financial support with acceptable and reasonable prices, which can maximize the benefits for the investors while minimizing the incentive budget for the government. Towards this end, this study aimed to develop an integrated multi‐objective optimization (iMOO) model for determining the optimal solar incentive design from the perspectives of the investor and the government. A Microsoft Excel‐based iMOO model was developed using life cycle cost analysis, genetic algorithm, and Pareto optimal solutions. The developed Microsoft Excel‐based iMOO model was applied to six target regions to verify its effectiveness in determining the optimal solar incentive design. As a result, it was shown that depending on the various characteristics (e.g., solar radiation, electricity price, and installation cost) of a region, the optimal solar incentive design can be differently determined with a reasonable and acceptable level using the developed iMOO model. Among the six target regions, Newark required the lowest incentive budget of $US10,648.41 whereas Oklahoma City required the highest incentive budget of $US20,648.73 to offer their optimal solar incentives. The model developed in this study can help both the investor and the government in a decision‐making process and provide some solutions and insights for planning solar policies and strategies. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

我国家用电器节能潜力分析

本文在大量家用电器市场数据调研的基础上,通过建立节能潜力预测模型,分三种情景开展了我国典型家用电器节能潜力分析.结果显示,通过提升高效节能产品的市场占有率,在高效情景1条件下,空调、电冰箱、洗衣机、液晶电视和电热水器等主要家电产品2021年—2025年的节能量累计达1465亿千瓦时,2021年—2030年节能量累计达6...     

An evaluation of domestic solar energy potential in Taiwan incorporating land use analysis

Solar energy is widely regarded as a major renewable energy source, which in future energy systems will be able to contribute to the security of energy supply and the reduction of CO₂ emissions. This study combined an evaluation of solar energy resources in Taiwan with land use analysis, which allows the potentials and restrictions of solar energy exploitation resulting from local land use conditions to be considered. The findings unveiled in this study indicate that photovoltaic electricity generation and solar water heating have the potential of producing 36.1 and 10.2 TWh of electricity and thermal energy annually in Taiwan, accounting for 16.3% and 127.5% of the total domestic consumption of electricity and energy for household water heating in 2009, respectively. However, the exploited solar photovoltaic power generation in 2009 accounted for only 0.02% of total potential in Taiwan, while the exploited solar water heating accounted for 11.6% of total potential. Market price and investment incentive are the dominant factors that affect market acceptance of solar energy installation in Taiwan. The administrative barriers to the purchase and transmission of electricity generated from renewable energy sources have to be removed before the potential contribution of solar energy can be realized.     

The outlook for improved carbon capture technology

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is widely seen as a critical technology for reducing atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from power plants and other large industrial facilities, which are major sources of greenhouse gas emissions linked to global climate change. However, the high cost and energy requirements of current CO₂ capture processes are major barriers to their use. This paper assesses the outlook for improved, lower-cost technologies for each of the three major approaches to CO₂ capture, namely, post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy-combustion capture. The advantages and limitations of each of method are discussed, along with the current status of projects and processes at various stages in the development cycle. We then review a variety of “roadmaps” developed by governmental and private-sector organizations to project the commercial roll-out and deployment of advanced capture technologies. For perspective, we also review recent experience with R&D programs to develop lower-cost technologies for SO₂ and NO_x capture at coal-fired power plants. For perspective on projected cost reductions for CO₂ capture we further review past experience in cost trends for SO₂ and NO_x capture systems. The key insight for improved carbon capture technology is that achieving significant cost reductions will require not only a vigorous and sustained level of research and development (R&D), but also a substantial level of commercial deployment, which, in turn, requires a significant market for CO₂ capture technologies. At present such a market does not yet exist. While various incentive programs can accelerate the development and deployment of improved CO₂ capture systems, government actions that significantly limit CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere ultimately are needed to realize substantial and sustained reductions in the future cost of CO₂ capture.     

Household biogas development in rural China: On policy support and other macro sustainable conditions

As a fuel, rural biogas is a promising renewable energy source. Policy support is a key initial impetus for industry development. This study explores household biogas development in rural China based on policy support found in literature. Relevant policies, which mainly include directive and guiding policies, economic inspiring policies, research policies, market policies, and other constructive policies, are gradually issued. Moreover, the National People's Congress has enacted five relevant laws, including the Agricultural Law, Renewable Energy Law, Animal Husbandry Law, Energy Conservation Law, and the Act on the Development of Circular Economy. The Energy Law is currently under revision. Relational rules and regulations have also been formed in response to the national policies and laws, which have already produced significant effects. The development of rural household biogas in China is growing steadily, and the technology standard projects have been established. The number of household biogas digesters and biogas annual output in 2010 was double of that in 2005. The offered financial incentive increased from 47 million dollars in 2002 to 760 million dollars in 2011. Policy supports play an important role in rural biogas development. And thus, additional national policy supports are necessary in the fields of scientific research, technological development, and biogas use model.     

Incentive mechanism design for the residential building energy efficiency improvement of heating zones in North China

Starting with analyzing the investigation results by Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development of China in 2005, more than half of the 10,236 participants are willing to improve the residential building energy efficiency and accept an additional cost of less than 10% of the total cost, the authors illustrate that incenting actions are necessary to improve building energy efficiency and build a central government–local government–market model. As a result of the model analysis, to pursue good execution effects brought by the incentive policies, the executors are required to distinguish the differences of incentive objects’ economic activities and strongly respect the incenting on the energy conservation performance. A case study on the incentive policies of existing residential building energy efficiency improvement in heating zones in North China is given as well. Finally, it is strongly recommended to give the first priority to performance-based incentives so that to reduce the lazy behaviors of the incented objects and ensure the targets to be achieved.     

The effect of life-cycle cost disclosure on consumer behavior: evidence from a field experiment with cooling appliances

Theory suggests that providing consumers with an estimated life-cycle cost (LCC) may make them buy more energy-efficient household appliances in cases where energy efficiency is cost effective. This article evaluates the link between the provision of LCC and consumer behavior by using an online field experiment for cooling appliances. Internet users arriving at a commercially operating price comparison website were randomly assigned to two experimental groups, and the groups were exposed to different visual stimuli. The control group received regular product price information, whereas the treatment group was offered additional information about estimated operating cost and total LCC. Consumers’ click behavior was evaluated with multiple regression controlling for several product characteristics (n = 1,969 clicks). We find that LCC disclosure reduces the mean specific energy use of chosen cooling appliances by 2.5% (p < 0.01), making it a potentially interesting approach for environmental policy regarding the market transformation toward more energy-efficient household appliances. However, LCC disclosure also decreases the number of clicks from the price comparison website to final retailers by about 23% (p < 0.01), which makes it—in the format chosen here—undesirable from a business perspective. Therefore, future research should clarify under what (if any) conditions can monetary energy cost disclosure be associated with more positive effects for price comparison websites.     

How to stimulate renewable energy power generation effectively? – China's incentive approaches and lessons

The renewable energy power generation (REPG) in China has experienced tremendous growth in the last decade. To understand this rapid growth, it is necessary to explore how Chinese government triggers the remarkable development of the industry. This paper offers a systematic analysis of the incentive policy system for REPG in China, covering wind power, solar photovoltaic, small hydropower (single-unit power generation capacity less than 50 MW), biomass power and geothermal power. The incentive system contains laws, regulations, policies and industrial plans issued during the 11th and 12th “Five-year Plan” periods (2006–2015). Four major incentive strategies of the Chinese government are identified: research and development incentives, fiscal and tax incentives, grid-connection and tariff incentives, and market development incentives. The results show these incentive methods have played a significant role in promoting the development of REPG in China, but still there are some problems associated with them. International comparisons of the incentive policies with those of Denmark, Germany and US, as well as the strategies to further improve the Chinese incentive approaches are discussed. This comprehensive analysis of China's incentive policy system for REPG helps to understand China's experience in promoting renewable energy, contributing to better decision-making in policy.     

Pricing power outages in the Netherlands

In most Western countries, the power grid provides electricity more than 99% of the time. To maintain reliability at such high levels, energy companies have to continually invest in electric transmission- and distribution systems. Since customers of electricity cannot switch from one distribution network to another, no economic incentive exists that matches the supplied reliability to customer preferences. Either under- or over-investment in reliability may thus result. In order to introduce market-like incentives, the Dutch Energy Regulator introduced a regulatory system based on the (perceived) costs of power outages. An essential ingredient of the regulation is the cost of a power outage of a particular duration (i.e., 1 minute). This paper measures these outage cost by using conjoint analysis. We find that the social cost of the present Dutch level of reliability — that is, one outage of two hours every four years — is €2.80 on average for every household, and €33.10 on average for every SME firm. The total costs to Dutch society are almost €50 million.     

Non-energy benefits of the US Weatherization Assistance Program: a summary of their scope and magnitude

The purpose of this paper is to summarize the findings reported recently in the literature on non-energy benefits attributable to the weatherizing of low-income homes. Non-energy benefits are divided into three major categories: (1) ratepayer benefits; (2) household benefits; and (3) societal benefits. The ratepayer benefits can be divided into two main subcategories: payment-related benefits and service-provision benefits. Similarly, there are two key types of household benefits: those associated with affordable housing and those related to safety, health and comfort. Societal benefits can be classified as either environmental, social, or economic. Our study found the total lifetime value for all non-energy benefit-categories to be $3346 (in 2001 dollars) per household, which is slightly greater than the average value of energy savings for houses heated by natural gas, and substantially higher than the total cost per low-income weatherization. Societal benefits were much larger than either ratepayer or household benefits.     

Higher energy prices: Windfall gains for homeowners?

The rapid rise of energy fuel prices in recent years has stimulated household interest in the cost of heating, cooling, and lighting houses. The obvious response implied by government policy and some government programs emphasizes an evaluation of houses, at least partially, on the basis of the reported fuel bills. The more fundamental issue, however, is establishing the potential for reducing energy consumption by improving home energy efficiency. The distribution of this potential throughout the housing stock implies that homeowners should gain or lose house value according to market perception of the retrofit potential rather than fuel bills per se. Houses which require few expenditures per unit of energy saved annually should increase in value at the expense of houses which require major expenditures. The ability to improve housing in response to higher energy prices probably correlates weakly but negatively with household income; lower income households could gain the most per dollar invested in home energy improvements. The hypotheses presented in this paper identify a number of issues that require empirical validation yet challenge conventional views on the basis of currently available data.     

The efficiency of Ireland's Renewable Energy Feed-In Tariff (REFIT) for wind generation

Ireland's Renewable Energy Feed-In Tariff (REFIT) for wind generation has some unusual features making it different from other REFIT schemes around the world. By utilising an annual floor price element the scheme presents an option value to the contract holder, which to date has gone unnoticed or unvalued in the market. By employing an option pricing framework, this paper has quantified for the first time in the public domain the expected costs and value of the Irish REFIT support scheme for wind generation. While the cost of the REFIT scheme to the electricity consumer appears to be lower than the cost of schemes in other countries, significant inefficiencies exist as a result of the structure of the scheme. The Irish REFIT scheme is contrasted with a single Fixed Price support scheme and the analysis suggests that the Fixed Price scheme can provide a similar or greater incentive to the wind sector at half the cost to the end electricity consumer, and may also prove more compatible with consumers desire to reduce inter-year electricity portfolio cost volatility.     

Diffusion of solar water heaters in regional China: Economic feasibility and policy effectiveness evaluation

Whereas the technical feasibility of solar water heaters (SWHs) has long been established, the economic feasibility of SWHs in regional China remains to be examined. This paper constructs cost models to calculate costs per unit energy saving of SWHs in 27 Chinese provincial capital cities. The cost effectiveness of SWHs is examined at the national level. At a micro level, we analyze the financial attractiveness of consumers’ investment in SWHs. A panel data model is employed to evaluate the effectiveness of a subsidy program in rural China. The results show that SWH costs, ranging from 0.305 to 0.744 CNY/kW h, are much lower than those of other major renewable energies across China. This finding indicates that the diffusion of SWHs is a cost-effective way to reach China’s renewable energy target. For consumers, incentive programs for SWHs are needed to improve the financial attractiveness of the devices in China. Existing subsidy policies for rural China have failed to significantly enhance the deployment of SWHs. The causes of the failure are examined and a new incentive program is suggested for rural areas of the country.     

Designing effective and efficient incentive policies for renewable energy in generation expansion planning

We present a bilevel optimization approach to designing effective and efficient incentive policies for stimulating investment in renewable energy. The effectiveness of an incentive policy is its capability to achieve a goal that would not be achievable without it. Renewable portfolio standards are used in this paper as the policy goal. The efficiency of an incentive policy is measured by the amount of policy intervention, such as taxes collected or subsidies paid, to achieve the policy goal. We obtain the most effective and efficient incentive policies in the context of generation expansion planning, in which a centralized planner makes investment decisions for the energy system to serve projected demand of electricity. A case study is conducted on integrated coal transportation and electricity transmission networks representing the contiguous United States. The numerical analysis from the case study provides insights on the comparison of various incentive policies. The sensitivity of the incentive policies with respect to coal production cost, wind energy investment cost, and transmission capacity is also studied.     

Screening instruments for monitoring market power — The Return on Withholding Capacity Index (RWC)

While markets have been liberalized all over the world, incumbents often still hold a dominant position, e.g. on energy markets. Thus, wholesale electricity markets are subject to market surveillance. Nevertheless, consolidated findings on abusive practices of market power and their cause and effect in these markets are scarce and non-controversial market monitoring practices fail to exist. Right now, the Residual Supply Index (RSI) is the most important instrument for market monitoring. However, a major drawback of this index is its focus on just one specific aspect of market power in wholesale electricity markets whereas different consequences of market power are possible. Hence, markets could be distorted in several ways and we propose the “Return on Withholding Capacity Index” (RWC) as a complementary index to the RSI. The index is a measure of the firms' incentive to withhold capacity. The benefits and practicability of the RWC are shown by an application on data for the German-Austrian electricity wholesale market in 2016.