Correction to Deci and Ryan.

Reports an error in Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 2008[Feb], Vol 49[1], 14-23). Figure 1 on page 17 was incorrect. The correct figure is printed in the text. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-03783-002.) Self-determination theory (SDT) differentiates motivation, with autonomous and controlled motivations constituting the key, broad distinction. Research has shown that autonomous motivation predicts persistence and adherence and is advantageous for effective performance, especially on complex or heuristic tasks that involve deep information processing or creativity. Autonomous motivation is also reliably related to psychological health. Considerable research has found interpersonal contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness to enhance autonomous motivation, which comprises intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation. SDT has been applied in varied cultures and in many life domains, and research is reviewed that has related autonomous and controlled motivation to education, parenting, work, health care, sport, and close relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Favoriser la motivation optimale et la santé mentale dans les divers milieux de vie.

Self-determination theory (SDT) differentiates motivation, with autonomous and controlled motivations constituting the key, broad distinction. Research has shown that autonomous motivation predicts persistence and adherence and is advantageous for effective performance, especially on complex or heuristic tasks that involve deep information processing or creativity. Autonomous motivation is also reliably related to psychological health. Considerable research has found interpersonal contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness to enhance autonomous motivation, which comprises intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation. SDT has been applied in varied cultures and in many life domains, and research is reviewed that has related autonomous and controlled motivation to education, parenting, work, health care, sport, and close relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic motivation in university: The role of basic psychological needs and identity formation.

This study was an investigation of the relationship between psychological need fulfillment, psychosocial development, and academic motivation in university students. Two models were tested. The 1st model, derived from developmental theories, proposed that basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness would predict identity and intimacy achievement, which would, in turn, predict academic intrinsic motivation. A 2nd model, based on self-determination theory, proposed that identity and intimacy would predict academic motivation and that this relationship would be mediated by basic psychological needs. Results from path analyses supported the model derived from self-determination theory over the model derived from developmental theories. Competence and identity were found to be the 2 constructs most strongly associated with academic motivation. These findings support the view that identity formation plays a critical role in facilitating academic motivation in university. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitating autonomous motivation for smoking cessation.

Physicians used either an autonomy-supportive or a controlling interpersonal style to counsel smokers based on National Cancer Institute guidelines. Physician autonomy support was rated from audiotapes, and patients' perceived competence and autonomous motivation for quitting were self-reported on questionnaires. Validated point prevalences for 6, 12, and 30 months and for continuous cessation were examined. The intervention did not have a direct effect on quit rates; however, structural equation modeling supported the self-determination process model of smoking cessation. The model indicated that the autonomy-supportive intervention was rated as more autonomy supportive, that rated autonomy support predicted autonomous motivation, and that autonomous motivation predicted cessation at all points in time. Perceived competence contributed independent variance to cessation only at 6 months. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Promoting self-determined motivation for exercise in cardiac rehabilitation: The role of autonomy support.

Objective: Using self-determination theory (SDT), we examined relationships between cardiac rehabilitation (CR) participants’ perceived autonomy support, motivation for exercise, and exercise behavior. Research Method/Design: Male CR outpatients (N = 53; Mage = 62.83 ± 10.78 years). The design was correlational (cross-sectional and prospective), examining relationships between perceived autonomy support and motivation for exercise at Week 4 of CR participation as well as motivation and CR attendance and other indicators of exercise behavior (frequency, duration, total exercise time) at a 1-week follow-up, 10 weeks later. Results: Perceived autonomy support was correlated with self-determined motivation, r(53) = .32, p r(53) = .34, p R2 = .27; β = .52, p     

Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is an empirically based theory of human motivation, development, and wellness. The theory focuses on types, rather than just amount, of motivation, paying particular attention to autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation as predictors of performance, relational, and well-being outcomes. It also addresses the social conditions that enhance versus diminish these types of motivation, proposing and finding that the degrees to which basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported versus thwarted affect both the type and strength of motivation. SDT also examines people's life goals or aspirations, showing differential relations of intrinsic versus extrinsic life goals to performance and psychological health. In this introduction we also briefly discuss recent developments within SDT concerning mindfulness and vitality, and highlight the applicability of SDT within applied domains, including work, relationships, parenting, education, virtual environments, sport, sustainability, health care, and psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of motivation in psychological stress.

"This paper reports an experiment designed to investigate motivational characteristics of individuals in response to stressor conditions… . Findings… highlight the methodological difficulties… and indicate the importance of investigating… variables in stress experimentation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social contagion of motivation between teacher and student: Analyzing underlying processes.

We examined (a) whether motivational orientation can spread from teachers to students during 2 consecutive teaching–learning sessions and (b) mechanisms underlying this phenomenon in a special physical education session delivered to high school students. Participants who were taught a sport activity by an allegedly paid instructor reported lower interest in learning and exhibited less persistence in a free-choice period than students taught by a supposedly volunteer instructor, despite receiving the same standardized lesson across experimental conditions. When participants taught the activity to their peers in a subsequent unconstrained learning session, lower levels of interest and behavioral persistence were also exhibited by learners who received the second lesson. A structural equation model confirmed that learners at the end of this educational chain made inferences about how intrinsically motivated their peer tutors were, on the basis of their teaching style (i.e., autonomy-supportive behaviors) and the positive affects they displayed. These inferences, in turn, affected the students' own intrinsic motivation for the activity. Results are interpreted in relation to self-determination theory, and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic motivation and psychological stress.

"Three issues were explored experimentally in this study… . the proposition that the arousal of a state of stress depends upon intrinsic motive states in the individual as well as the nature of the stressor conditions… . The proposal… that stress would tend to improve sensory-motor output and impair conceptual performance on the basis of different amounts of interference… .the importance of the S's past history of success or failure in a particular motivational direction in determining whether a stress state would be aroused." 15 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding motivation for exercise: A self-determination theory perspective.

Understanding the factors that motivate health-enhancing physical activity has considerable merit given the role of this lifestyle behaviour in combating disease and promoting quality of life. The purpose of this article is to provide a broad overview of research investigating participation issues in exercise from the perspective of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2002). Evidence informing the application of SDT to the study of motivational issues in exercise is reviewed around three central questions: (a) Does the quality of motivation regulating exercise behaviour matter?, (b) How important are basic psychological needs within exercise contexts?, and (c) Can contextual variables be manipulated to create adaptive environments for exercise? The available evidence is supportive of many propositions set forth within SDT by Deci and Ryan's work (2002). Future avenues for exercise motivation research are offered based on the available evidence with a view to addressing unresolved issues and advancing SDT's development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of need fulfillment in relationship functioning and well-being: A self-determination theory perspective.

Self-determination theory posits 3 basic psychological needs: autonomy (feeling uncoerced in one's actions), competence (feeling capable), and relatedness (feeling connected to others). Optimal well-being results when these needs are satisfied, though this research has traditionally focused on individual well-being outcomes (e.g., E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 2000). Three studies examined the role of need fulfillment in relationship functioning and well-being. Study 1 found that fulfillment of each need individually predicted both individual and relationship well-being, with relatedness being the strongest unique predictor of relationship outcomes. Study 2 found that both partners' need fulfillment uniquely predicted one's own relationship functioning and well-being. Finally, in Study 3, the authors used a diary recording procedure and tested a model in which the association between need fulfillment and relationship quality was mediated by relationship motivation. Those who experienced greater need fulfillment enjoyed better postdisagreement relationship quality primarily because of their tendency to have more intrinsic or autonomous reasons for being in their relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient.

Self-determination theory posits that the degree to which a prosocial act is volitional or autonomous predicts its effect on well-being and that psychological need satisfaction mediates this relation. Four studies tested the impact of autonomous and controlled motivation for helping others on well-being and explored effects on other outcomes of helping for both helpers and recipients. Study 1 used a diary method to assess daily relations between prosocial behaviors and helper well-being and tested mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction. Study 2 examined the effect of choice on motivation and consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping using an experimental design. Study 3 examined the consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping for both helpers and recipients in a dyadic task. Finally, Study 4 manipulated motivation to predict helper and recipient outcomes. Findings support the idea that autonomous motivation for helping yields benefits for both helper and recipient through greater need satisfaction. Limitations and implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Substance use by college students: The role of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation for athletic involvement.

Certain types of athletic involvement may confer risk for substance use by college students. This study investigated whether motivational factors play a role in the relationship between athletic involvement and substance use. Intercollegiate athletes (n=98) and exercisers (n=120) were surveyed about substance use and motivation for athletic involvement. Athletes and exercisers who were extrinsically motivated had significantly higher rates of alcohol use than their intrinsically motivated counterparts. Results suggest that college students who are extrinsically motivated for involvement in physical activity/athletics--particularly those involved in team sports--may be in need of targeted prevention efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating behavioral-motive and experiential-requirement perspectives on psychological needs: A two process model.

Psychological need theories offer much explanatory potential for behavioral scientists, but there is considerable disagreement and confusion about what needs are and how they work. A 2-process model of psychological needs is outlined, viewing needs as evolved functional systems that provide both (a) innate psychosocial motives that tend to impel adaptive behavior and (b) innate experiential requirements that when met reinforce adaptive behavior and promote mental health. The literature is reviewed to find support for 8 hypotheses derived from this model: that certain basic psychosocial motives are present at birth; that successful enactment of these motives supports the functioning and wellness of all humans; that individual differences in these motives develop in childhood; that these strong motive dispositions tend to produce the satisfying experiences they seek; that motive dispositions do not moderate the effect of motive-corresponding need satisfaction on well-being but do moderate the effect of assigned goal-type on rated self-concordance for those goals; that need dissatisfaction and need satisfaction correspond to the separable behavioral-motive and experiential-reward aspects of needs; and that motives and needs can become decoupled when chronic dissatisfaction of particular requirements warps or depresses the corresponding motives, such that the adaptive process fails in its function. Implications for self-determination theory and motive disposition theory are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational profiles from a self-determination perspective: The quality of motivation matters.

The present research complements extant variable-centered research that focused on the dimensions of autonomous and controlled motivation through adoption of a person-centered approach for identifying motivational profiles. Both in high school students (Study 1) and college students (Study 2), a cluster analysis revealed 4 motivational profiles: a good quality motivation group (i.e., high autonomous, low controlled); a poor quality motivation group (i.e., low autonomous, high controlled); a low quantity motivation group (i.e., low autonomous, low controlled); and a high quantity motivation group (i.e., high autonomous, high controlled). To compare the 4 groups, the authors derived predictions from qualitative and quantitative perspectives on motivation. Findings generally favored the qualitative perspective; compared with the other groups, the good quality motivation group displayed the most optimal learning pattern and scored highest on perceived need-supportive teaching. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Persuasive communication and proenvironmental behaviours: How message tailoring and message framing can improve the integration of behaviours through self-determined motivation.

Public concern about environmental issues has grown substantially in the last two decades. As a consequence, the promotion of environmentally conscious behaviours that are integrated in people's lifestyle has become an ongoing and important challenge. Persuasive messages are often perceived as the first step in efforts to motivate people to change a specific behaviour. In this article, the authors propose that (a) tailoring messages according to proposed processes underlying behaviour change (i.e., being aware of a problem, deciding what to do, initiating, and implementing a behaviour); and (b) framing these messages in terms of whether they serve intrinsic goals (i.e., health, well-being) as opposed to extrinsic goals (i.e., make or save money, comfort) could make messages more effective by progressively increasing the level of self-determined motivation of the targeted population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A self-determination theory approach to psychotherapy: The motivational basis for effective change.

The application of self-determination theory (SDT) to psychotherapy is particularly relevant because a central task of therapy is to support the client to autonomously explore, identify, initiate, and sustain a process of change. In this article, the authors discuss the experimental work, field studies, and clinical trials representing the application of SDT to the domain of psychotherapy. Evidence supports the importance of client autonomy for the attainment and maintenance of treatment outcomes. In addition, intervention studies suggest that therapist autonomy support enhances the likelihood that treatment gains will be achieved and maintained. The authors discuss some of the processes involved in enhancing autonomy, including the role of awareness, the importance of exploring and challenging introjects and external regulations, attention to need-related goal contents, and therapist attitudes required for a therapy approach that is process- rather than outcome-focused. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomous motivation for teaching: How self-determined teaching may lead to self-determined learning.

This study examined teachers' experience of autonomous motivation for teaching and its correlates in teachers and students. It was hypothesized that teachers would perceive various motivations posited by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan's (2000) self-determination theory as falling along a continuum of autonomous motivation for teaching. Autonomous motivation for teaching was predicted to be associated positively with teachers' sense of personal accomplishment and negatively with emotional exhaustion. Most important, teachers' self-reported autonomous motivation for teaching was expected to promote students' self-reported autonomous motivation for learning by enhancing teachers' autonomy-supportive behavior, as indicated by students' reports. Results from a sample of 132 Israeli teachers and their 1,255 students were consistent with the hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the importance of the experience of autonomous motivation for teaching for teachers and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher motivational strategies and student self-determination in physical education.

Physical education teachers can influence students' self-determination through the motivational strategies they use. In this study, the authors examined the relationship between teachers' perceptions of class average self-determination, the teachers' self-determination, and their reported use of 3 motivational strategies: autonomy support, structure, and involvement. They examined the relationship between the 3 motivational strategies, students' perceptions of psychological need satisfaction, and students' self-determination. They also investigated the relationship between teachers' and students' self-determination. Multilevel and standard regression analyses revealed that teachers' perceptions of class average self-determination predicted their reported use of the motivational strategies, and this relationship was mediated by their own self-determination. Student perceptions of the three strategies had a positive effect on their own self-determination, and this relationship was mediated by their reported satisfaction of autonomy and competence. Finally, teachers' self-determination did not predict students' self-determination. The importance of promoting an adaptive motivational climate for both teachers and students is discussed with reference to self-determination theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice.

The authors investigated 3 commonly cited experiential qualities to propose a model of the essential nature of perceived self-determination in intrinsic motivation--internal locus, volition, and perceived choice. In 3 studies, they used structural equation modeling to compare a series of nested models in which 1, 2, or all 3 of these qualities were used to identify the best fitting conceptual model. Results consistently supported the model in which internal locus and volition, but not perceived choice, constitute valid indicators of self-determination. In light of the findings, the authors proposed a modified definition for perceived self-determination and discussed the conundrum of choice by proposing the conditions under which teachers can (and cannot) expect choice to increase students' intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)