Integrated Lake and Catchment Phosphorus Model– A Eutrophication Management Tool. I: Model Theory

The paper describes an integrated lake and catchment model which was developed and tested against data from the Rutland Water catchment (River Nene and Welland) in Eastern England. The model uses export coefficients to predict annual diffuse losses of phosphorus from catchment land use, which are temporally disaggregated using empirical relationships between phosphorus load and discharge in headwater streams. Dynamic inputs of phosphorus are incorporated into a hydrologically based, multi-reach distributed catchment model which also simulates sewage discharges, abstractions and reservoirs/ lakes. The model allows a comparison of simulated output with observed discharge and water-quality data from various points within the river system.     

Heavy metals in Lake Balaton: water column, suspended matter, sediment and biota

During the period 1999-2002, five sampling cruises have been carried out on Lake Balaton to assess trace metal distribution in the lake and to identify major sources. Eighteen elements, including Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb (trace metals) and Al, Ba, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S, Sr (major metals), were determined in one or more of the lake's compartments. Lower trace metal concentrations in rainwater were observed in June and February 2000, while much higher levels were present in September 2001 (during a storm event) and in snow (February 2000). In the Northern and Western parts of the lake, especially at the inflow of river Zala and the locations of the yacht harbours, metal concentrations were higher in almost all compartments. Because the lake is very shallow, storm conditions also change significantly the metal distributions in the dissolved and particulate phases. The Kis-Balaton protection system located on Zala river functions very efficiently for retaining suspended particulate matter (SPM; 72% retention) and associated metals. Metal concentrations in surface sediments of the lake showed a high variability. After normalisation for the fine sediment fraction, only a few stations including Zala mouth appeared to be enriched in trace metals. In zooplankton, Zn seemed to be much more elevated compared to the other trace metals. Based on the molar ratios of the trace metals in the various compartments and input flows of the lake, several trends could be deduced. For example, molar ratios of the trace metals in the dissolved and solid (suspended particulate matter and sediments) phases in the lake are fairly similar to those in Zala River.     

An evaluation of catchment-scale phosphorus mitigation using load apportionment modelling

Functional relationships between phosphorus (P) discharge and concentration mechanisms were explored using a load apportionment model (LAM) developed for use in a freshwater catchment in Ireland with fourteen years of data (1995-2008). The aim of model conceptualisation was to infer changes in point and diffuse sources from catchment P loading during P mitigation, based upon a dataset comprising geospatial and water quality data from a 256 km² lake catchment in an intensively farmed drumlin region of the midlands of Ireland. The model was calibrated using river total P (TP), molybdate reactive P (MRP) and runoff data from seven subcatchments. Temporal and spatial heterogeneity of P sources existed within and between subcatchments; these were attributed to differences in agricultural intensity, soil type and anthropogenically-sourced effluent P loading. Catchment rivers were sensitive to flow regime, which can result in eutrophication of rivers during summer and lake enrichment from frequent flood events. For one sewage impacted river, the LAM estimated that point sourced P contributed up to of 90% of annual MRP load delivered during a hydrological year and in this river point P sources dominated flows up to 92% of days. In the other rivers, despite diffuse P forming a majority of the annual P exports, point sources of P dominated flows for up to 64% of a hydrological year. The calibrated model demonstrated that lower P export rates followed specific P mitigation measures. The LAM estimated up to 80% decreases in point MRP load after enhanced P removal at waste water treatments plants in urban subcatchments and the implementation of septic tank and agricultural bye-laws in rural subcatchments. The LAM approach provides a way to assess the long-term effectiveness of further measures to reduce P loadings in EU (International) River Basin Districts and subcatchments.     

The relative contribution of sewage and diffuse phosphorus sources in the River Avon catchment, southern England: implications for nutrient management

In order to effectively manage nutrient river load reductions and target remediation strategies, it is important to determine the relative contributions of diffuse and point sources across the river catchment. This study used a geographical information system (GIS) to apply phosphorus (P) export coefficients (obtained from the literature) to 58 water quality monitoring sites across a large, urbanised, mixed land use catchment, typical of southern lowland England (the River Avon, Warwickshire, UK). These coefficients were used to estimate the annual P load at each monitoring site, and also the relative contribution of point source (from sewage treatment works (STW)) and diffuse input (from both livestock and agricultural land use). The estimated annual P loads showed very close agreement (r2=0.98) with the measured total phosphorus (TP) loads. Sites with the highest proportion of P derived from STW had the highest TP concentrations and loads, and also had greater variations between seasons, with elevated P concentrations occurring during the summer months. The GIS model was re-run to determine the effect of an 80% reduction in P output from STW serving over 10,000 people, thereby assessing the effect of implementing the European Union's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD). The exported TP load was reduced by 52%, but the sites with the highest TP concentrations were still those with the highest proportion of P derived from STW. The GIS model was re-run to estimate the impact of 80% P reductions at a further 11 STW of varying sizes. This reduced the total TP load by only 29 tonnes year-1, but greatly reduced the P concentrations in many highly nutrient contaminated tributaries. The number of sites with P concentrations greater than 1 mg l-1 was cut from 15 (before UWWTD implementation) to 2. These findings suggest that after UWWTD implementation, resources should focus on introducing tertiary sewage treatment at the remaining large STW, before targeting diffuse inputs. This conclusion is also likely to apply to other lowland river catchments in southern England, most of which have similar population densities to the River Avon.     

The phosphorus budget of the Thame catchment,Oxfordshire, UK: 1. Mass balance

The relative magnitudes of annual diffuse and point source loads of phosphorus (P) to the River Thame were estimated from daily and monthly measurements of discharge and concentration. Existing data from gauging and monitoring sites on the river network and at point sources were supplemented by survey data at a range of spatial scales. Results showed that during low flow periods most of the P could be attributed to point sources, while at high flows the figure was less than 10%. The introduction of P stripping at Aylesbury, a major sewage treatment works in the catchment, was estimated to have reduced the annual load of P from the sewage treatment works by approximately 45 t, with a similar reduction in loss from the catchment. This gave a reduction in low flow concentrations of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) from 2.5 to 1.7 mg l⁻¹. Concentrations of SRP in river water remain above eutrophication thresholds because of the influence of other STWs in the catchment and insufficient natural discharge to dilute this.     

Modelling of phosphorus inputs to rivers from diffuse and point sources

The difference in timing of point and diffuse phosphorus (P) delivery to a river produces clear differences in the P concentration-flow relationship. Point inputs decrease in concentration with increasing river flow, due to dilution of a relatively constant input, whereas diffuse (non-point) load usually increases with river flow. This study developed a simple model, based on this fundamental difference, which allowed point and diffuse inputs to be quantified by modelling their contribution to river P concentration as a power-law function of flow. The relationships between total phosphorus (TP) concentration and river flow were investigated for three contrasting UK river catchments; the Swale (Yorkshire), the Frome (Dorset) and the Avon (Warwickshire). A load apportionment model was fitted to this empirical data to give estimates of point and diffuse load inputs at each monitoring site, at high temporal resolution. The model produced TP source apportionments that were similar to those derived from an export coefficient approach. For many diffuse-dominated sites within this study (with up to 75% of the annual TP load derived from diffuse sources), the model showed that reductions of point inputs would be most effective in order to reduce eutrophication risk, due to point source dominance during the plant and algae growing period. This modelling approach should provide simple, robust and rapid TP source apportionment from most concentration-flow datasets. It does not require GIS, information on land use, catchment size, population or livestock density, and could provide a valuable and versatile tool to catchment managers for determining suitable river mitigation options.     

Sewage-effluent phosphorus: a greater risk to river eutrophication than agricultural phosphorus?

Phosphorus (P) concentrations from water quality monitoring at 54 UK river sites across seven major lowland catchment systems are examined in relation to eutrophication risk and to the relative importance of point and diffuse sources. The over-riding evidence indicates that point (effluent) rather than diffuse (agricultural) sources of phosphorus provide the most significant risk for river eutrophication, even in rural areas with high agricultural phosphorus losses. Traditionally, the relative importance of point and diffuse sources has been assessed from annual P flux budgets, which are often dominated by diffuse inputs in storm runoff from intensively managed agricultural land. However, the ecological risk associated with nuisance algal growth in rivers is largely linked to soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations during times of ecological sensitivity (spring/summer low-flow periods), when biological activity is at its highest. The relationships between SRP and total phosphorus (TP; total dissolved P+suspended particulate P) concentrations within UK rivers are evaluated in relation to flow and boron (B; a tracer of sewage effluent). SRP is the dominant P fraction (average 67% of TP) in all of the rivers monitored, with higher percentages at low flows. In most of the rivers the highest SRP concentrations occur under low-flow conditions and SRP concentrations are diluted as flows increase, which is indicative of point, rather than diffuse, sources. Strong positive correlations between SRP and B (also TP and B) across all the 54 river monitoring sites also confirm the primary importance of point source controls of phosphorus concentrations in these rivers, particularly during spring and summer low flows, which are times of greatest eutrophication risk. Particulate phosphorus (PP) may form a significant proportion of the phosphorus load to rivers, particularly during winter storm events, but this is of questionable relevance for river eutrophication. Although some of the agriculturally derived PP is retained as sediment on the river bed, in most cases this bed sediment showed potential for removal of SRP from the overlying river water during spring and summer low flows. Thus, bed sediments may well be helping to reduce SRP concentrations within the river at times of eutrophication risk. These findings have important implications for targeting environmental management controls for phosphorus more efficiently, in relation to the European Union Water Framework Directive requirements to maintain/improve the ecological quality of impacted lowland rivers. For the UK rivers examined here, our results demonstrate that an important starting point for reducing phosphorus concentrations to the levels approaching those required for ecological improvement, is to obtain better control over point source inputs, particularly small point sources discharging to ecologically sensitive rural/agricultural tributaries.     

Eutrophication of Tamar Lakes (1975–2003): a case study of land-use impacts, potential solutions and fundamental issues for the Water Framework Directive

Tamar Lakes is comprised of two reservoirs, which are located in South West England and in the headwaters of River Tamar at approximately 135 m above ordnance datum. Upper Tamar Lake (UTL) is a direct feed source reservoir of potable water in North Cornwall. Immediately following completion in 1975, UTL was subject to intense blue‐green algal blooms that continue to the present. These blooms create operational problems for water treatment, especially in hot‐dry years. Lower Tamar Lake (LTL) was constructed as a water supply reservoir in 1819 and became obsolete following UTL coming on‐line. Detailed water quality investigations over a period of some 28 years have confirmed the source of nutrient enrichment that fuels the algal blooms to be agriculturally derived, corresponding with a substantial increase in livestock farming. Associated poor land management practices, such as extensive field drainage and inappropriate slurry disposal to land, are linked with substantial elevations in organic contaminants such as ammonia, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS) during rainfall events. Evidence demonstrates that both reservoirs act as primary treatment lagoons, substantially reducing the worst of these pollutants and providing significant environmental gain. The implications of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and regulatory monitoring are discussed in relation to resource management.     

Seasonal occurrence and toxicity of Microcystis in impoundments of the Huron River, Michigan, USA

Occurrence and toxicity of Microcystis spp. were measured by ELISA in three impoundments of the Huron River in southeast Michigan, USA. Assays were conducted weekly from June through October 2005. Additional samples were collected to assess microcystin concentrations throughout the drinking water treatment process at the Ann Arbor Water Treatment Facility. Water column stability, nutrient concentrations, and N:P ratios were examined as potential predictors of phycocyanin and microcystin. Microcystin was found in two of the impoundments at seasonally varying concentrations. Microcystis presence was associated with N:P ratios between 40 and 80 by moles, and toxin levels typically peaked one to two weeks after a peak in phycocyanin. The toxin was also detected at low levels at all stages of the drinking water treatment process. Freezing and thawing water samples prior to analysis yielded maximum microcystin assay concentrations. Experiments indicated that the competitive ELISA method is susceptible to false negative reporting. This is the first report of algal toxins in this catchment, and results demonstrate that sensitive and rapid analytical methods offer the chance to link the dynamics of toxin production with environmental conditions.     

Atmospheric circulation patterns influencing variations in organic carbon fluxes in the River Oulujoki,Finland

Atmospheric circulation generally influences regional climate variability and thereby controls catchment hydrology and consequently transport of elements in natural riverine systems. This study examined dependencies between total organic carbon (TOC) variability in the River Oulujoki (Finland) during 1963–2011 and prominent atmospheric circulation patterns (ACPs), which manifest natural climatic conditions over Finland and control hydrological processes in the river catchment. North Atlantic Oscillation, Scandinavia, East Atlantic and East Atlantic/West Russia patterns were statistically significant ACPs affecting variations in TOC export at River Oulujoki lower basin area. In the River Oulujoki, TOC export was largely controlled by changes in TOC fluxes generated from tributaries of river and near areas to its main channel. Besides, runoff from Lake Oulujärvi slightly influenced TOC export variability in the River Oulujoki. Understanding such responses of TOC fluxes to ACPs is a useful tool for sustainable water resources planning and management on regional and local scales.     

Orthophosphate Concentrations in the River Thames

Observed concentrations of orthophosphate in the River Thames, from its source to its tidal limit, exceed 0.1 mg P/1 for most of its length; reasons for annual and seasonal variations are explained. By using data routinely collected by the Environment Agency throughout the Thames catchment, the orthophosphate load in the river, derived from agricultural sources and sewage-treatment works, is estimated.
A water quality model, TOMCAT, has been adapted to simulate observed data and used to estimate river concentrations if orthophosphate loads from sewage-treatment works are reduced.     

Changes in point and diffuse source phosphorus inputs to the River Frome (Dorset, UK) from 1966 to 2006

Changes in the relationship between soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentration and river flow between 1966 and 2006 were assessed for the River Frome, UK using the recently developed Load Apportionment Model. The resulting source load estimates gave good agreement with known changes within the catchment. The model indicated an increase in point source contribution to the total river load from 46% to 62% between 1970 and 1985. This corresponded with the population increase within the catchment during that time. The predicted mean SRP load was highest between 1996 and 2000 (30 t y^− 1), with 49% coming from point sources. Despite no lowering in population or major changes in agricultural practice, the model predicted a reduced load of 18.1 t y^− 1 for the period 2001 to 2005, due mainly to a decrease in point source inputs from 14.6 t y^− 1 to 6.1 t y^− 1 (equivalent to 34% of the total load). This prediction matches the major improvements in sewage treatment that occurred within the catchment in 2002. This study thus provides a major validation of the Load Apportionment Model. The model provides an effective and rapid method of determining past changes in phosphorus sources, based entirely on the P concentration - flow relationship: critically, it does not require any historical information on land use, fertiliser application rates, topography, soil types and sewage inputs. Further decreases in SRP concentration in the River Frome during the algal growing season would be best achieved by further reductions of STW inputs.     

Cyanobacteria-mediated internal eutrophication in shallow Lake Balaton after load reduction

Nutrient loads to large, shallow Lake Balaton have been reduced by 45-50% since mid-1980s. While a delayed, but still surprisingly fast recovery was observed in the hypertrophic western areas of the lake, eutrophication followed sewage diversion from the mesotrophic northern basins. We assessed factors that could lead to this unusual response. The prime reason of the observed biomass increase might be a trend of increasing mean water temperature during late summers and the concurrent invasion of the subtropical cyanobacterium, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii with superior light and nutrient utilisation capabilities. In the mesotrophic areas, the prerequisite of the unforeseen success of C. raciborskii was the exceptionally high potential of this species to generate internal P load. Specific morphometric features of the lake rather than nutrient loads might substantiate the increasing dominance of the cyanobacterium in these areas. Our results stress the need to consider individual characteristics of aquatic ecosystems during eutrophication management.     

Orthophosphate concentrations in the River Thames: reductions in the past decade

Ten years ago plans were made to reduce the phosphorus load from sewage-treatment works' effluents into the River Thames. This was driven by the EC Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive in relation to sensitive areas (eutrophic). Modelling work identified the most significant loads to tackle first. Phosphorus removal had been commissioned at 36 works by 2003. The orthophosphate load to the River Thames from these works has reduced from 5755 to 688 kg P/day. The impact of the improvement programme on the quality of the river was assessed by comparing pre- and post-investment data. Orthophosphate concentrations in the river have reduced from between about 0.5 and 2 mg P/L to 0.2 and 0.4 mg P/L. These observations match the model predictions. Chlorophyll a concentrations in the river have also reduced. This was unexpected given that the orthophosphate concentrations still exceed the values thought to be limiting for algal growth.     

Seasonal export of phosphorus from a lowland catchment: upper River Cherwell in Oxfordshire, England

The export of phosphorus from a lowland catchment, the River Cherwell in southern England, was measured over a period of 1 year. The results describe total phosphorus concentrations in the water and river discharge at 4-day intervals. These were used to estimate the load of total phosphorus exported from the catchment. These annual loads were compared with exports estimated from sewage inputs and diffuse inputs calculated from land-coverage data, with assigned phosphorus export coefficients for particular land uses. The method was further developed to examine seasonal changes in phosphorus exports by predicting monthly losses using annual export coefficients normalised with respect to the relative hydraulic runoff for a particular month. The results show a strong seasonal dependence of total exports, with retention of phosphorus in the river system in the spring to early autumn and release of stored material during the winter. This pattern remained true, even with 50% increase in the main land-cover export and a similar increase in treated sewage exports.     

Estimating the effect of water quality on surface water supplies

River quality models derived by regression analysis are often quick and cheap to produce. They can be used as a basis for forecasting river quality and to calculate the effects of water quality constraints on the operation of water supplies drawn from rivers and impoundments. Results for nitrate show that to operate intakes according to river quality is a poor method of controlling quality in impoundments.     

Factors influencing lake recovery from eutrophication--the case of basin 1 of Lake Balaton

Lake Balaton is a large, shallow, and calcareous lake that was subject to a rapid eutrophication during the 1970s. Management measures taken from the mid-1980s decreased the phosphorus load to the lake from 0.5 to 0.3 g P m-2 yr-1. Using long-term load and water quality data, we analyse the response of the formerly hypertrophic Basin 1 of the lake by the means of simple empirical models. Several factors that are commonly neglected during studies of lake recovery modified the apparent settling velocity of total P and consequently, the biomass of the phytoplankton. These factors included the loads of calcium and suspended solids, the loading ratio of the dissolved to particulate phosphorus, and blooming of the dominant cyanobacterium, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Due to the rapid immobilisation of the mobile phosphorus in the surface sediments, moderate reduction (45-50%) in the external load resulted in a surprisingly fast and significant improvement of the water quality in the hypertrophic southwestern basins of the lake.     

The water quality of the River Thame in the Thames Basin of south/south-eastern England

The water quality of the River Thame, a tributary of the River Thames in the Thames basin, is described in relation to point and diffuse contaminant inputs and runoff from permeable and impermeable bedrock geology with their own characteristic water quality. The data is examined to see if the market town of Aylesbury in the upper part of the catchment influences water quality. Previous studies highlighted the influence of Aylesbury sewage treatment works (STW) on soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations in the river before and after phosphorus (P) stripping at the STW. Variations in water quality along the river are described and the study indicates that, apart from SRP, water quality determinants seem to be relatively unaffected by Aylesbury. The Thame water quality is compared with other catchment typologies and it is very similar to that of the main stem of the Thames even though the Thames is mainly Chalk groundwater fed. Differences in water quality largely link to the amount of STW effluent within the rivers and to the endmember compositions of the groundwater and near surface water sources.     

Predicting the vulnerability of reservoirs to poor water quality and cyanobacterial blooms

Cyanobacterial blooms in drinking water reservoirs present a major ecosystem functioning and human health issue. The ability to predict reservoir vulnerability to these blooms would provide information critical for decision making, hazard prevention and management. We developed a new, comparative index of vulnerability based on simple measures of reservoir and catchment characteristics, rather than water quality data, which were instead used to test the index’s effectiveness. Testing was based on water quality data collected over a number of seasons and years from 15 drinking water reservoirs in subtropical, southeast Queensland. The index correlated significantly and strongly with algal cell densities, including potentially toxic cyanobacteria, as well as with the proportions of cyanobacteria in summer months. The index also performed better than each of the measures of reservoir and catchment characteristics alone, and as such, was able to encapsulate the physical characteristics of subtropical reservoirs, and their catchments, into an effective indicator of the vulnerability to summer blooms. This was further demonstrated by calculating the index for a new reservoir to be built within the study region. Under planned dimensions and land use, a comparatively high level of vulnerability was reached within a few years. However, the index score and the number of years taken to reach a similar level of vulnerability could be reduced simply by decreasing the percentage of grazing land cover via revegetation within the catchment. With climate change, continued river impoundment and the growing demand for potable water, our index has potential decision making benefits when planning future reservoirs to reduce their vulnerability to cyanobacterial blooms.     

Seasonal nutrient dynamics in a chalk stream: the River Frome, Dorset, UK

Chalk streams provide unique, environmentally important habitats, but are particularly susceptible to human activities, such as water abstraction, fish farming and intensive agricultural activity on their fertile flood-meadows, resulting in increased nutrient concentrations. Weekly phosphorus, nitrate, dissolved silicon, chloride and flow measurements were made at nine sites along a 32 km stretch of the River Frome and its tributaries, over a 15 month period. The stretch was divided into two sections (termed the middle and lower reach) and mass balances were calculated for each determinand by totalling the inputs from upstream, tributaries, sewage treatment works and an estimate of groundwater input, and subtracting this from the load exported from each reach. Phosphorus and nitrate were retained within the river channel during the summer months, due to bioaccumulation into river biota and adsorption of phosphorus to bed sediments. During the autumn to spring periods, there was a net export, attributed to increased diffuse inputs from the catchment during storms, decomposition of channel biomass and remobilisation of phosphorus from the bed sediment. This seasonality of retention and remobilisation was higher in the lower reach than the middle reach, which was attributed to downstream changes in land use and fine sediment availability. Silicon showed much less seasonality, but did have periods of rapid retention in spring, due to diatom uptake within the river channel, and a subsequent release from the bed sediments during storm events. Chloride did not produce a seasonal pattern, indicating that the observed phosphorus and nitrate seasonality was a product of annual variation in diffuse inputs and internal riverine processes, rather than an artefact of sampling, flow gauging and analytical errors.