润滑和载荷状态对聚甲醛齿轮服役性能的影响

基于齿轮耐久性能试验台开展了一系列干接触/油润滑下POM(聚甲醛)-POM齿轮副承载能力试验,并测量了服役过程中的轮齿温度、磨损量、齿廓精度和齿面形貌。试验发现,POM齿轮失效形式与载荷和润滑方式有关。通过对齿面微观形貌和磨屑表征,确认干接触下POM齿轮主要磨损模式为黏着磨损与磨粒磨损,而油润滑下POM齿轮失效形式为接触疲劳失效。由于润滑油减少了齿面摩擦,降低了运行温度,延缓了齿面劣化程度,因此POM齿轮在油润滑下的承载能力明显提高。     

Deterministic mixed lubrication modelling using roughness measurements in gear applications

The presence of surface roughness on the teeth of hardened and ground power transmission gears is an unavoidable consequence of their manufacture. The paper discusses the effect of surface roughness when the elastohydrodynamic lubricant film thickness developed between the gear tooth surfaces is small compared to the heights of the roughness features. The ratio of these quantities, called the Λ value, may be well below unity in typical applications. For such thin film conditions the moving roughness features cause the elastohydrodynamic contact between the gears to be highly transient in nature. Surface roughness features on the working surfaces of the gears move past each other during meshing and these asperity encounters are associated with extreme pressure perturbations, or with film breakdown and isolated asperity boundary lubrication events. The paper reviews approaches used to study this problem and describes a coupled approach to solving the elastic and hydrodynamic equations. This allows numerical solutions to be obtained for these extreme conditions so that transient contact events associated with mixed lubrication can be predicted in a unified numerical solution scheme. Typical results obtained from such an analysis are presented including surface fatigue modelling and contact strain energy calculations.     

直齿圆柱齿轮表面微凸起磨损的时变热效应弹流润滑分析

以渐开线直齿圆柱齿轮为研究对象,建立考虑表面微凸起的润滑模型,给出相应的膜厚方程.在以往表面粗糙度的研究基础上,对两齿面的表面微凸起在不同磨损程度下的热解进行数值分析.结果表明:齿面上的微凸起会明显影响齿轮间的润滑效果,会对齿轮齿面造成比微点蚀更大的损伤;对于两个表面均存在微凸起的齿面,齿面的磨合磨损主要发生于主动轮上时,相比发生在从动轮上,会减缓对齿轮啮合过程中压力冲击的影响,会使油膜的中心压力、膜厚等变化趋于平缓.     

核电循环泵行星齿轮热弹流润滑研究

核电齿轮箱的良好润滑性能是核电循环泵可靠运行的重要保障,充分考虑齿面形貌和齿廓修形等因素对内/外啮合齿轮副的影响是准确评估其润滑特性的前提。建立典型工况下核电循环泵行星传动系统斜齿轮热弹流润滑模型,首先将斜齿轮副的啮合状态几何等效为圆锥滚子的接触问题,然后考虑斜齿轮接触变形和齿廓偏差,计算得到内/外啮合齿轮副接触区域不同位置的油膜厚度、承载压力、摩擦应力和闪温等参数。考虑齿面磨合作用,采用移动平均滤波方法对未经磨合的初始形貌进行光滑处理,分析了齿面形貌对润滑行为的影响,最后采取齿廓修形改善润滑特性。结果表明：粗糙度和齿廓修形均会对润滑特性产生明显的影响,齿面粗糙形貌会造成油膜厚度减小,进而影响其润滑特性,弱化润滑油膜的承载能力;通过齿廓修形可以改善齿轮啮合边界处的几何过渡,降低该区域的应力集中和表面温度,从而明显改善啮合线终端的润滑状态。     

Enhanced friction model for high-speed right-angle gear dynamics

The modeling of elastohydrodynamic lubrication friction and the analysis of its dynamic effect on right-angle gears, such as hypoid and spiral bevel types are performed in the present study. Unlike the classically applied empirical constant coefficient of friction at the contacting tooth surfaces, the enhanced physics-based gear mesh friction model is both spatial and time-varying. The underlying formulation assumes mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) condition in which the division and load distribution between the full film and asperity contact zones are determined by the film thickness ratio and load sharing coefficient. In the proposed time-varying friction model, the calculation of friction coefficient is performed at each contact grid inside the instantaneous contact area that is being subjected to mineral oil lubrication. The effective friction coefficient and directional parameters synthesized from the net frictional and normal contact forces are then incorporated into a nonlinear time-varying right-angle gear dynamic model. Using this model, the effect of friction on the gear dynamic response due to the transmission error and mesh excitations is analyzed. Also, parametric studies are performed by varying torque, surface roughness and lubrication properties to understand the salient role of tooth sliding friction in gear dynamics. The simulation results are included. But experimental verification is needed.     

A Model for Wear and Friction in Cylinder Liners and Piston Rings

Abstract

A one-dimensional elstohydrodynamic mixed lubrication wear and friction model is developed. The model can predict the effects of surface roughness, asperity contact, temperature-pressure-viscosity on wear, lubrication, and friction of the piston rings and cylinder liner. Wear is predicted based on the surface asperity contact pressure. The cylinder bore wear and the ring pack friction during an engine break-in are simulated and compared with the experimental results. The influence of cylinder wall temperature and surface roughness on friction and wear is investigated. The ring pack friction due to oil viscous shearing and asperity contact is found to reach its minimum at a certain oil temperature.     

Experimental simulation of gear contact along the line of action

In highly loaded gears, lubricated rolling/sliding contact conditions change greatly along the line of action. This leads to variation in gear frictional properties and to failures such as pitting and scuffing that take place in different positions along the tooth flank. Information on instant contact behavior is therefore very useful, but this kind of measurement in real gears is extremely complicated. Single spur gear geometry has been simulated at 38 steady-state measuring points along the line of action using a twin-disc test device focusing on the friction coefficient and on temperature and lubrication conditions. Twin-disc simulations were adjusted to match real gear experiments by using similar maximum Hertzian pressure and surface velocities. The results show that the curve shapes for the mean friction coefficient as a function of pitch line velocity are similar to the corresponding experimental results with real gears. Further, the calculated thermal Λ-values of real gears and the measured mean contact resistance correspond well. This approach shows potential for simulating gear friction and failure mechanisms along the line of action.     

斜齿轮渐进性磨损对齿轮振动特性的影响分析

目前,研究磨损对齿轮动力学特性的影响大多采用传统的Archard磨损模型,并未考虑齿轮的润滑特性,且主要研究对象多为直齿轮。为了弥补斜齿轮研究方面的不足,数值模拟了混合弹流润滑状态下斜齿轮的磨损过程,建立了一个8自由度斜齿轮动力学模型,研究齿面磨损对斜齿轮动态特性的影响。在斜齿轮试验台上进行了齿轮疲劳试验,对数值仿真结果进行验证。结果表明,齿面磨损主要发生在靠近齿根和齿顶部分,且由于齿根处较高的滑滚比导致其磨损更加严重。根据齿轮啮合频率及其谐波幅值的变化可知,磨损导致齿轮的振动增加。试验分析与数值仿真有较好的一致性,说明该研究可以为斜齿轮磨损的预测和故障诊断提供可靠的理论依据。     

Effect of Lubricant Contamination on Gear Wear

In this work the degradation of spur gears lubricated in a severe dusty environment studied. An experiment was carried out, which simulates the operation of gears in contaminated media such as the Sahara desert, quarries, or mines. The present study gives the effect of the presence of solid bodies in lubricants during surface contact. This paper shows that the use of a lubricant contaminated by very fine sand particles, leads to significant wear in the first few operating cycles, in zones with a high rate of sliding. This wear is more significant at the gear tooth root than at the tip. In order to understand the wear phenomenon, Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) images were taken. The presence of contaminants, leads to an increase in friction, and therefore raises the temperature; consequently the roughness increases. The roughness values become more significant with the presence of particles smaller than 40 μm in the lubricant.     

渐开线直齿轮瞬态微观热弹流润滑分析

考虑了瞬态效应、轮齿表面油膜温度场和轮齿表面纵向粗糙度等因素,对渐开线直齿圆柱齿轮的弹流润滑问题进行研究。载荷由双齿或单齿承担,根据实际载荷谱简化的轮齿载荷曲线,利用压力求解的多重网格法和弹性变形求解的多重网格积分法以及温度求解的逐列扫描技术,得到渐开线直齿轮瞬态微观热弹流润滑问题的完全数值解,讨论了轮齿间油膜的厚度、压力、温度沿啮合线的变化规律。数值计算结果表明,齿轮表面纵向粗糙度对轮齿间油膜的压力、膜厚、温升都有较大影响。考虑轮齿表面粗糙度后,油膜压力和温升明显增大,并随压力的增加而影响越来越显著,粗糙峰使油膜压力分布和温度分布产生振荡,轮齿表面的粗糙峰对摩擦因数影响较小,摩擦因数和最高温升在节点两侧最大。     

Analysis of rough line contacts operating under mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication conditions

Heavily loaded machine elements, such as gears, usually operate in the mixed lubrication regime. Surface roughness has a significant effect on the pressure distribution, the subsurface stress field, and the friction coefficient. Based on the superposition of a dry rough and a fully flooded smooth contact, a mixed lubrication model has been developed. The roughness profile is assumed to be known. Surface deformation is calculated by taking into account the pressure distribution that is built up by asperity contacts, asperity interactions, and lubricant flow. Thermal and sliding effects are incorporated into the analysis. Non‐Newtonian lubricant behaviour is considered by using a power‐law rheological model. The pressure distribution, subsurface stress field, and friction coefficient were calculated from the model at several points along the contact path for an FZG type C gear pair. It was shown that a significant part of the load is carried by the contacting asperities. The position of the maximum shear stress is very close to the surface.     

Study on development of polyamide gears for improvement of load-carrying capacity

In polyamide based gears, thermal damage of the gear tooth surfaces occurs during gear meshing due to accumulated heat in the tooth body. In the experimental study reported in this paper, polyamide gear teeth have been modified in order to distribute the generated heat on the tooth surface by means of drilled cooling holes at different locations on the gear tooth body. The main aims of this paper were to study the effect of cooling holes on the accumulated heat on the tooth surface and on the measured wear. It was shown that the drilled cooling holes on the tooth body decreased the tooth surface temperature and led to an increase in the load carry capacity and improved wear resistance. Geometrically modified gears have showed an improved service life and a decreased surface temperature.     

准静态与动态载荷下斜齿轮齿面粘着磨损计算

基于反向圆锥滚子等效接触模型和Archard磨损计算通式,提出了一种适用于标准斜齿轮齿面粘着磨损的计算方法。由时变接触线长百分比和弯-扭-轴耦合动力学模型确定齿面载荷,根据等效接触模型和Hertz接触理论计算齿面压力和滑移距离,求出准静态与动态载荷下的齿面磨损量。通过将主动轮磨损曲线与相关文献结果比较,验证了上述方法的正确性。几何与工作参数对磨损量的影响分析显示,齿根与齿顶处的磨损量较大,且齿根的磨损量大于齿顶,节圆处的磨损量趋近于零;齿轮前端面至后端面,主动轮磨损量逐渐减小而从动轮磨损量逐渐增大;宽齿轮的磨损量沿齿宽渐趋均布。参数分析表明：增大模数、传动比、齿宽或减小扭矩均可降低磨损量,增大螺旋角或改变转速对减小齿面磨损的作用不明显。上述研究对于提高齿轮表面质量与传动性能,对于减磨设计具有一定的参考价值。     

Surface initiated tooth flank damage: Part I: Numerical model

A numerical model for the prediction of surface initiated damage on gear tooth flanks (micropitting and mild wear) is presented. This model hinges on a model of the mixed film lubrication regime and on the application of the Dang Van high-cycle multi-axial fatigue criterion. A simulation of the meshing of spur gears is performed in order to gain some understanding of the events associated with contact fatigue surface damage.     

Thermal aspects of lubrication of concentrated contacts

Deterioration of gears occurs by abrasive wear, pitting (surface fatigue) or severe adhesive wear (scuffing). The effects of the latter mode may be mitigated by the use of extreme pressure (EP) additives but these sometimes accentuate the risk of pitting-type failure. Accordingly, EP lubricants are not recommended for industrial gearing. The introduction of elastohydrodynamic lubrication theory has demonstrated that it is possible to operate gears without physical contact between the interacting tooth faces. Under conditions of pure rolling (at the pitch point) there is good agreement between theory and experiment, but when relative sliding occurs the measured film thickness is lower than calculated. A recently derived theory, taking into account the effect of the heating arising from relative sliding on the hydrodynamic film thickness, has been applied to a set of industrial gears, from which it is deduced that the effect on load-carrying capacity of the gear is not serious. The theory has also been applied to some results obtained on the Institution of Automobile Engineers lubricant-testing machine.     

Producing gear teeth with high form accuracy and fine surface finish using water-lubricated chemical reactions

A new method was investigated for high-accuracy fine finishing of gear teeth surfaces using a water-lubricated tribo-chemical technique. A pair of shaved gears with rather low surface roughness was rotated in water lubricant for 30 min so that the gear tooth surface contacting the mating tooth was ‘worn’ to a mirror surface and ideal tooth profile, due to the mechano-chemical mild erosion of the contact area. The wear rate was 2.0 μm per 20,000 meshings, corresponding to a wear of one atomic radius thickness per meshing. Oxidation of the steel surface by water molecules is proposed as the dominant wear process. Operation noise from the gear pair rotation was drastically reduced to lower than about 10–15 dB compared to conventionally machined gear surfaces (30 dB in average), as a result of the wear of the tooth surface to form a best-fit profile. The noise increased with further processing of the gear pair. Thus, there is an appropriate number of rotations for suitable surface wear treatment. This new and simple procedure for surface treatment assures saving in energy, and does not require expensive honing techniques or high-accuracy grinding tools.The wear mechanisms used in this process are discussed along with the application of the technique to other processes for precision finishing.     

齿面综合研磨率分析与研齿性能试验

首次通过对研齿过程的轮齿接触仿真,齿面瞬时接触应力、齿面滑动系数与齿面研磨概率的研究分析,建立了齿面综合研磨率的评价指标,并进行了研齿性能试验。结果表明,准双曲面齿轮齿面中部研磨要严重一些,靠齿根稍重些,靠齿顶稍轻些,这与传动误差变化规律一致。研齿能一定程度上降低齿形、齿距误差,尤其对轮齿的实际啮合精度改善明显,振动噪声均有较大下降。     

直齿面齿轮啮合效率计算研究

基于直齿面齿轮啮合仿真和弹性流体动力润滑理论,提出了直齿面齿轮啮合效率的计算方法,揭示了输入扭矩、转速等对啮合效率的影响。运用轮齿接触分析和轮齿承载接触分析技术,对直齿面齿轮承载啮合过程进行数值仿真;运用非牛顿热弹流理论,建立滑动摩擦因数的计算模型,从而建立直齿面齿轮啮合效率的计算模型。计算结果表明,滑动摩擦因数是影响齿轮啮合效率的重要因素,齿面不同位置的滑动摩擦因数也不相同,滑动摩擦因数受到输入转速、输入扭矩的影响。     

旋转齿轮瞬时接触应力和温度的分析模拟

建立了高速齿轮传动轮齿瞬时接触温度的分析方法和模型;采用赫兹接触理论和有限元接触分析方法分析了标准渐开线齿廓和齿顶修形齿廓的齿面接触压力;研究了啮合过程中轮齿的相对滑动速度和齿面摩擦因数以及摩擦热流密度的计算方法;建立了轮齿本体温度的有限元温度分析模型;计算了轮齿接触面的瞬时温升;分析了标准和齿顶修形渐开线齿轮的轮齿本体温度和瞬时接触温度及相关因素对它们的影响。     

Dynamic interaction between contact loads and tooth wear of engaged plastic gear pairs

This study investigates the interaction between the dynamic contact load and the tooth profile wear of POM and Nylon 66 plastic gear pairs. A dynamic model of a plastic gear pair is presented. This model incorporates the effects of position-varying tooth mesh stiffness, damping ratio, load sharing, tooth profile wear and temperature on the dynamic contact load. The tooth wear equation developed by Flodin and Andersson [Simulation of mild wear in spur gears. Wear 1997;207:16–23] is utilized to simulate tooth wear and tooth profile variation. The variation of the contact load generated by the cumulative tooth profile wear is simulated and examined. A computational algorithm is developed to simulate the interaction between a dynamic contact load and tooth profile wear. Numerical results demonstrate that the dynamic load histogram of an engaged plastic gear pair can change markedly due to tooth wear.