The fate of nitrogen from incorporated cover crop and green manure residues

Nitrogen retention and release following the incorporation of cover crops and green manures were examined in field trials in NE Scotland. These treatments reduced the amounts of nitrate-N by between 10–20 kg ha^-1 thereby lowering the potential for leaching and gaseous N losses. However, uptake of N by overwintering crops was low, reflecting the short day-lengths and low soil temperatures associated with this part of Britain. Vegetation that had regenerated naturally was as effective as sown cover crops at taking up N over winter and in returning N to the soil for the following crop. Incorporation of residues generally resulted in lower mineralisation rates and reduced N₂O emissions than the cultivation of bare ground, indicating a temporary immobilisation of soil N following incorporation. Emissions from incorporated cover crops ranged from 23–44 g N₂O-N ha^-1 over 19 days, compared with 61 g N₂O-N ha^-1 emitted from bare ground. Emissions from incorporated green manures ranged from 409–580 g N₂O-N ha^-1 over 53 days with 462 g N₂O-N ha^-1 emitted from bare ground. Significant positive correlations between N₂O and soil NO₃ ^- after incorporation (r=0.8–0.9; P<0.001 and r=0.1–0.4; P<0.05 for cover crops and green manures, respectively) suggest that this N₂O was mainly produced during nitrification. There was no significant effect of either cover cropping or green manuring on the N content or yield of the subsequent oats crop, suggesting that N was not sufficiently limiting in this soil for any benefits to become apparent immediately. However, benefits of increased sustainability as a result of increased organic matter concentrations may be seen in long-term organic rotations, and such systems warrant investigation.     

Nitrous oxide emissions as influenced by legume cover crops and nitrogen fertilization

In this study, we measured nitrous oxide (N₂O) fluxes from plots of fall-planted hairy vetch (HV, Vicia villosa) and spring-planted broadleaf vetch (BLV, Vicia narbonensis) grown as nitrogen (N) sources for following summer forage crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis). Comparisons also included 60 kg ha^?1 inorganic N fertilizer for crabgrass at planting (60-N) and a control without N fertilizer. Each treatment had six replicated plots across the slope. Fluxes were measured with closed chamber systems during the period between spring growth of cover crops and first-cut of crabgrass in mid-July. HV had strong stand and aboveground biomass had 185?±?50 kg N ha^?1 (mean?±?standard error, n?=?6) at termination. However, BLV did not establish well and aboveground biomass had only 35?±?15 kg N ha^?1. Ratio vegetation index of crabgrass measured as proxy of biomass growth was highest in HV treatment. However, total aboveground biomass of crabgrass was statistically similar to 60-N plots. Fluxes of N₂O were low prior to termination of cover crops but were as high as 8.2 kg N₂O ha^?1 day^?1 from HV plots after termination. The fluxes were enhanced by large rainfall events recorded after biomass incorporation. Rainfall enhanced N₂O fluxes were also observed in other treatments, but their magnitudes were much smaller. The high N₂O fluxes from HV plots contributed to emissions of 30.3?±?12.4 kg N₂O ha^?1 within 30 days of biomass incorporation. Emissions were only 2.0?±?0.7, 3.4?±?1.3 and 1.0?±?0.4 kg N₂O ha^?1 from BLV, 60-N and control plots, respectively.     

Contribution of relay intercropping with legume cover crops on nitrogen dynamics in organic grain systems

Nitrogen (N) management is a key issue in livestock-free organic grain systems. Relay intercropping with a legume cover crop can be a useful technique for improving N availability when two cash crops are grown successively. We evaluated the benefits of four relay intercropped legumes (Medicago lupulina, Medicago sativa, Trifolium pratense and Trifolium repens) on N dynamics and their contribution to the associated and subsequent cash crops in six fields of organic farms located in South-East France. None of the relay intercropped legumes affected the N uptake of the associated winter wheat but all significantly increased the N uptake of the succeeding spring crop, either maize or spring wheat. The improvement of the N nutrition of the subsequent maize crop induced a 30 % increase in grain yield. All relay intercropped legumes enriched the soil–plant system in N through symbiotic fixation. From 71 to 96 % of the N contained in the shoots of the legumes in late autumn was derived from the atmosphere (Ndfa) and varied between 38 and 67 kg Ndfa ha^?1. Even if the cover crop is expected to limit N leaching during wintertime, the presence of relay intercropped legumes had no significant effect on N leaching during winter compared to the control.     

How winter cover crops and tillage intensities affect nitrogen availability in eggplant

This study evaluates the fate of nitrogen (N) content in winter cover crops under different tillage intensities. Field trials were conducted over a 2-year period in a Mediterranean environment adopting a cover crop–eggplant sequence. The treatments were: three cover crops (hairy vetch, oat and oilseed rape); three tillage intensities (residue left on soil surface, shallow green manure and deep green manure). The measurements included: cover crop and eggplant characteristics, N mineralization from cover crops, soil inorganic N and soil CO₂ emission. At cover crop termination, N accumulated in the cover crops was 207, 77 and 77 kg N ha^?1 in hairy vetch, oat and oilseed rape, respectively. Tillage intensity affected biomass decomposition and N mineralization from cover crop residues which were slower when residues were left on soil surface (54 and 71%, respectively) than when incorporated into the soil (66 and 79%, respectively). Hairy vetch showed a greater ability to supply N to eggplant (151 kg N ha^?1), due to the fast decay of its residues, consequently, the N balance index was always high after hairy vetch throughout eggplant cultivation. N mineralized by cover crops was positively correlated with total soil CO₂ emission and soil inorganic N. Placing cover crop residues on soil surface enhances synchronization between N mineralized and eggplant N demand in hairy vetch, while in oat it appears to mitigate the shortage of soil inorganic N for the following vegetable. These findings may also be extended to other summer vegetables which have similar requirements to the eggplant.     

Nutrient transformation in soil due to addition of organic manure and growing crops

Maintaining organic pools of nitrogen (N) in soil is important for providing a steady flux of N in soil solution. Bioslurry, which is the product obtained from anaerobically digested (methanised) farm yard manure (FYM), is an efficient source of organic manure with capability to supply nutrients, particularly N to crops. A study was conducted to see the equilibrium relationship between the inorganic and organic N fractions as affected by application of bioslurry and fertilizer N in a maize (Zea mays L.) — mustard (Brassica campestris) crop sequence. Results obtained revealed that 75.7 percent of the total soil N was in the hydrolyzable N fraction. Among the hydrolyzable fractions, aminoacid N, unidentified N and hydrolyzable NH ₄ ⁺ constituted 25.8, 25.7 and 18.6 percent of the total N, respectively. Ammonium fixed in clay lattice constituted 19.1 percent of the total N. Application of bioslurry @ 13.32 t ha^–1 under N-unfertilized conditions increased NO₃-N, fixed NH ₄ ⁺ , aminoacid N, hexosamine N and hydrolyzable NH ₄ ⁺ . The magnitude of increase in total hydrolyzable and inorganic N fractions was 31.4 and 15.2 percent, respectively. Growing crops decreased N in the inorganic fractions. Transformation reaction of organic N to inorganic N was evident after second crop in the sequence. Fertilizer N application encouraged build-up of N in organic fractions, particularly in aminoacid, hydrolyzable NH ₄ ⁺ and unidentified N fractions. Application of bioslurry maintained higher status of N in both organic and inorganic N fractions. Linear regression relationship between N content in different fractions and bioslurry applied both under fertilized and unfertilized conditions assisted in developing prediction models on the rate of bioslurry to be applied to arrive at the desired N content in different fractions. Significant intercorrelation coefficients (r²) between different fractions indicated free mobility between the N fractions under limited N conditions suggesting a dynamic equilibrium between them. Path coefficient analysis showed that exchangeable NH ₄ ⁺ and NO₃-N had substantial direct positive effect on N uptake by mustard with bioslurry application. Under untreated conditions exchangeable NH ₄ ⁺ , hexosamine and hydrolyzable NH ₄ ⁺ fractions had higher direct contribution to meet mustard N requirement. Most of the hydrolyzable N fractions contributed to N uptake by mustard by first transforming to exchangeable NH ₄ ⁺ and NO₃—N and thus setting an equilibrium condition for maintaining the steady flux of N to plants.Part of Ph.D. Thesis of the senior author     

Soil nitrogen mineralization in a soil with long-term history of fresh and composted manure containing straw or wood-chip bedding

Long-term effects of fresh (FM) versus composted (CM) beef manure application to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) on potentially mineralizable nitrogen (N ₀ ), and mineralizable nitrogen (N) pools, were evaluated in a clay loam soil in southern Alberta, Canada. A suite of laboratory-based indices were evaluated for prediction of soil N supply. The treatments were three rates (13, 39, 77 Mg ha^?1 dry wt.) of FM or CM containing either straw or wood-chip bedding, 100 kg N ha^?1 as inorganic fertilizer, and an unfertilized control. Treatments were fall-applied annually for 8 years (1998–2005). Soil samples (top 15 cm) were collected in spring 2006. The medium and high rates of organic amendment resulted in increases in N ₀ , and readily (Pool I) and intermediate (Pool II) mineralizable N pools in ranges of 140–355 % compared with the average of the fertilizer and control treatments. Fertilizer application had no significant effect on mineralizable N pools, but increased the mineralization rate constant (k) compared with the control. Application of FM and use of straw bedding resulted in a greater quantity of readily available and intermediate mineralizable N, and also increased the rate of N turn-over as indicated by greater values of k, compared with CM and wood-chip bedding. Among laboratory-based measures of soil N supply, CaCl₂–NO₃ (r² = 0.84) and NaHCO₃-205 (r ² = 0.79) were strong predictors of plant N uptake (PNU). Increased soil mineralizable N did not translate into greater barley dry-matter yield or PNU. Composted beef manure and use of wood-chip bedding can be recommended as alternatives to FM and use of straw bedding for barley production is Southern Alberta.     

Interactions of aerobically decomposed cattle manure and nitrogen fertilizer applied to soil

Inorganic N fertiliser may be applied to soil in addition to cattle manure by smallholder farmers in developing countries: (a) to complement fertilization; (b) to control a possible immobilisation of N by the manure; and (c) to eliminate the risk of yield depression due to lack of plant available N. The aim of this study was to find out if and how much N was immobilised by cattle manure, if and when remineralisation of N will take place and, if added N has an effect on decomposition of cattle manure in soil. A laboratory study was conducted applying inorganic N fertiliser to soil (NH4NO3 equivalent to 30, 60 and 120 kg N ha-1) together with four cattle manures with different C/N ratios (9–18). CO2–C mineralisation and changes of inorganic N in soil were determined over 60 d. Immobilisation of fertiliser N occurred with manure having the lowest C/N ratio but not with the manures having a higher C/N ratios. Maximum immobilization of fertiliser N (23–36%) occurred within 21 d and thereafter N was mineralised. Carbon dioxide evolution decreased in cattle manure-amended soil at increasing rates of N fertiliser, but decomposition was still higher than from the unamended control. None of the manure treated soils had significantly different contents of inorganic N after 2 months of incubation. It was not possible to use the C/N ratio of aerobically decomposed cattle manure as a tool to predict mineralization or immobilization of N. It was concluded that aerobically decomposed solid cattle manures do not contribute to the N supply of crops in the short term but can immobilize fertiliser N applied at the same time.     

Guayule seedling response to nitrogen fertilizers

Slow growth and high seedling mortality limit direct seeding establishment of guayule (Parthenium argentatum G.). This study was conducted to assess seedling growth enhancement by the addition of different rates and forms of N fertilizers and Ca salts. Experiments were conducted in a greenhouse with cultivar 593 under both surface and subirrigated conditions using water low in salts (salinity of 0.8 dSm^–1, SAR of 5.0 and 10 mg Ca L^–1). Under surface-irrigated conditions, seedling height and fresh plant weight increased with N application to the irrigation water to 70 mg L^–1. The best seedling growth was observed when (NH₄)₂SO₄ was added in combination with CaCl₂ or CaSO₄. Progressively less growth was observed by addition of (NH₄)₂SO₄ alone, CO(NH₂)₂ plus CaSO₄, CO(NH₂)₂ alone and Ca(NO₃)₂. When seedlings were subirrigated, however, the best growth was observed with Ca(NO₃)₂. Intermediate growth was obtained with (NH₄)₂SO₄ plus CaSO₄ and lowest growth rates with (NH₄)₂SO₄ alone. These differential responses may be explained by the differences in leaching and volatile characteristics of the N forms. Growth enhancement from N and Ca additions increased with time with significant increases 45 days after seeding. Nitrogen application with Ca may be effective amendment in promoting subsequent growth of direct seeded guayule.     

Spatial variation of nitrogen mineralization as a guide for variable application of nitrogen fertilizer to cereal crops

The site specific management of variable rate nitrogen (N) fertiliser application to crops is a cost-effective system that optimises outputs and reduces environmental impact. However, its implementation requires information on the spatial variability of soil and crop variables and, especially, of the N supply from the soil, measured as the available N and the N mineralized from organic matter. The objective of this study was to obtain the spatial structure of the variation of net N mineralization, within the field scale in a cereal cropping system, in order to improve site specific N management. A nested sampling survey was conducted in the field using scales of variation at 1.5, 4.5, 13.5, 40.5 and 121.5 m, arranged in hierarchical order with n = 96 samples. Samples were collected in autumn and spring and N mineralization measured by aerobic incubation. The components of variance of the N mineralized were calculated using residual maximum likelihood and used to produce an approach to the variogram. The within-field spatial variation was almost all (92–93%) encompassed by the scales of variation measured, all occurring within 40.5 m in both seasons. However, there was a significant amount of fine scale variation at 1.5 m in autumn and 4.5 m in spring. These results will guide future spatial sampling of the N supply, and soil monitoring in general.     

Soil nitrogen conservation with continuous no-till management

Tillage management is an important regulator of organic matter decomposition and N mineralization in agroecosystems. Tillage has resulted in the loss of considerable organic N from surface soils. There is potential to rebuild and conserve substantial amounts of soil N where no-till management is implemented in crop production systems. The objectives of our research were to measure N conservation rate with continuous no-till management of grain cropping systems and evaluate its impact on mineralizable and inorganic soil N. Samples were collected from 63 sites in production fields using a rotation of corn (Zea mays L.)—wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) or barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)—double-crop soybean (Glysine max L.) across three soil series [Bojac (Coarse-loamy, mixed, semiactive, thermic Typic Hapludults), Altavista (Fine-loamy, mixed semiactive, thermic Aquic Hapludults), and Kempsville (Fine-loamy, siliceous, subactive, thermic Typic Hapludults)] with a history of continuous no-till that ranged from 0 to 14 yrs. Thirty-two of the sites had a history of biosolids application. Soil cores were collected at each site from 0–2.5, 2.5–7.5 and 7.5–15 cm and analyzed for total N, Illinois soil N test-N (ISNT-N), and [NH₄ + NO₃]-N. A history of biosolids application increased the concentration of total soil N by 154 ± 66.8 mg N kg⁻¹ (310 ± 140 kg N ha⁻¹) but did not increase ISNT-N in the surface 0 – 15 cm. Continuous no-till increased the concentration of total soil N by 9.98 mg N kg⁻¹ year⁻¹ (22.2 ± 21.2 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and ISNT-N by 1.68 mg N kg⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the surface 0–15 cm. The implementation of continuous no-till management in this cropping system has resulted in conservation of soil N.

Crop response to manure and fertilizer in Burkina Faso and Niger

Farmyard manure (FYM) is valuable for soil management, especially for soils with <?10 g kg^?1 organic C in semi-arid West Africa. This study determined short-term FYM effects on yield and on response to N, P and K fertilizer for 20 trials in Niger and 28 trials in Burkina Faso involving six crops. The comparisons were of 0 and 2.5 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1 FYM applied in Niger, and of 0 and 5 Mg ha^?1 FYM applied once in 2 years in Burkina Faso. Fertilizer and FYM application alone had little effect on yield in Niger but there was a synergistic effect of fertilizer P with FYM which included increased mean responses to P of, respectively: 0.22 and 0.43 Mg ha^?1 for sorghum grain and fodder (Sorghum bicolor L.); 0.15 and 0.27 Mg ha^?1 for cowpea grain and fodder; 0.16 Mg ha^?1 grain for pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) when intercropped with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.); and 0.39 Mg ha^?1 for groundnut fodder (Arachis hypogea L.). Application of FYM increased pearl millet response to N but decreased legume response to K fertilizer. In Burkina Faso, there was a mean grain yield increase of 0.29 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1 due to FYM and the effect of applying both FYM and fertilizer was additive except for a synergy of N fertilizer plus manure application for maize (Zea mays L.). Therefore, farmers should apply FYM and fertilizer together in Niger but these can be applied alone or together in Burkina Faso with mostly similar effects.     

Azo disperse dyes with polyfluoroalkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom of the coupling component

A number of new azo disperse dyes with polyfluoroalkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom of the coupling component have been prepared. The influence of polyfluoroalkyl groups on the colour and properties of azo dyes has been studied. The replacement of hydrogen atoms of the methyl group of the coupling component by polyfluoroalkyl radicals causes a hypsochromic shift of absorption maximum in a neutral solution and deepening of the dye colour in an acid solution. All tested dyes showed a high lightfastness on acetate and polyamide fibres.     

Nitrogen supply from fertilizer and legume cover crop in the transition to no-tillage for irrigated row crops

In spite of potential benefits and positive assessments of reducing primary tillage operations, only a small part of irrigated row crops is currently managed using reduced tillage, for reasons that include concerns about its agronomic suitability for certain crop rotations. Three years of a tomato/corn rotation under standard and no-tillage management were used to understand the fate of a fertilizer and cover crop nitrogen (N) application. Uptake of both inputs was reduced under no-tillage during the year of application, in this case a tomato crop. As a result, more input N was retained in the soil in this system. The initial challenge of reduced tomato yields diminished as no-tillage management remained in place and the soil N reservoir developed. Corn production was not affected by tillage treatment. Inclusion of a legume cover crop increased the amount of fertilizer N retained in the soil over time, more so under no-tillage than under standard tillage, emphasizing the benefit of cover crops in reducing the amount of fertilizer required to maintain productivity. While acceptance of reduced tillage ultimately depends on economic performance, the results of this study support its agronomic viability for irrigated row crops.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilizers applied to annual crops in a subtropical ecosystem

Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems - In this study, we assessed the potential of enhanced-efficiency nitrogen (EEN) fertilizers for mitigating nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and compared it with...     

Soil N mineralization in a dairy production system with grass and forage crops

This paper describes the dynamics of soil N mineralization in the experimental intensive dairy farming system ‘De Marke’ on a dry sandy soil in the Netherlands. We hypothesized that knowledge of the effects of crop rotation on soil N mineralization and of the spatial and temporal variability of soil N mineralization in a farming system can be used to better synchronize N application with crop N requirements, and hence to increase the recovery of applied N and to reduce N losses. Soil N mineralization was recorded continuously in the soil layer 0–0.30 m, from 1992 to 2005, using a sequential in situ coring technique on six observation plots, of which two were located in permanent grassland and four in crop rotations with a 3 year grassland phase and an arable phase of 3 or 5 years, dominated by maize. Average annual soil N mineralization was highest under permanent grassland: 381 kg ha^?1 and lowest under ≥3rd years arable crops: 184 kg ha^?1. In temporary grassland, soil N mineralization increased in the order: 1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year grassland and in arable crops after grassland mineralization decreased in the order: 1st year, 2nd year, ≥3rd years. Total mineral N input, i.e. the sum of N mineralization and mineral N supply to soil, exceeded crop N requirements in 1st year maize and was lower than the requirements in 1st year temporary grassland. N mineralization in winter, outside the growing season, was 77 kg ha^?1 in maize and 60 kg ha^?1 in grassland. This points at the importance of a suitable catch crop to reduce the susceptibility to N leaching. Temporal and spatial variability of soil N mineralization was high and could not be related to known field conditions. This limits the extent to which N fertilization can be adjusted to soil N mineralization. Variability increased with the magnitude of soil N mineralization. Hence, situations with high soil N mineralization may be associated with high risks for N losses and to reduce these risks a strong build-up of soil organic N should be avoided. This might be achieved, for instance, by fermenting slurry before application on farmland to enhance the fraction mineral N in slurry at the expense of organic N.     

Nitrogen dynamics and yields of fresh bean and sweet corn with different cover crops and planting dates

Cover crops are recommended to mitigate N losses but effects on crop productivity have been variable and often negative. A better understanding of management-specific cover crop systems may lead to yield improvements. In 2011–2014, a split–split-plot factorial field experiment, with four replicates assessed the impact of cover crop (five species and no cover crop controls) and planting date (August vs. September) on crop yield and N dynamics. Fresh bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. rugosa) were grown with 45 and 101 kg N ha^?1 fertilizer, respectively, except for the no cover crop without fertilizer control (Nocc-NoN). Although there was a cover crop by planting date interaction (P < 0.05) for cover crop biomass and N accumulation in the fall and spring, this interaction was not observed in main crop yield nor N concentration and accumulation, suggesting that simply growing a cover crop and below-ground effects may be more influential than the quantity and quality of above-ground biomass. Based on greater yields (6.9%) than the no cover crop with fertilizer (Nocc+N) control, all cover crops tested were recommended before corn but only the oat cover crop increased fresh bean yield (by 10.5%), which suggests crop-specific recommendations are needed. Yield improvements could not be attributed to N fertility alone, suggesting another mechanism was involved. The increased productivity with cover crops while minimizing potential for N losses in the non-growing season has important implications for sustainable agroecosystems and food security.     

Development of nitrogen fertilizer recommendations for arable crops in the Netherlands in relation to nitrate leaching

In the Netherlands, current nitrogen fertilizer recommendations for arable crops are based on the amount of soil mineral nitrogen in early spring. The larger the amount of soil mineral nitrogen, the lower the recommended application rate of fertilizer nitrogen. A more refined method is to draw up a balance sheet in which the nitrogen requirement of the crop is given on the one side and the contributions of fertilizer nitrogen, soil mineral nitrogen, and the amount of nitrogen mineralized during the growing period on the other. The most refined method of nitrogen fertilizer recommendation is the use of a simulation model that predicts the daily crop nitrogen requirement and nitrogen supply to the crop from various pools during the growing period. A simulation model thus adds the time element to nitrogen fertilizer recommendations. Moreover, in contrast with the other two methods, a simulation model allows identification of environmental side-effects of nitrogen fertilizer application.The current Dutch nitrogen fertilizer recommendations aim at predicting the economically optimum application rate of fertilizer nitrogen. From the environmental point of view it is interesting to know how much soil mineral nitrogen has accumulated in the soil at harvest, because this nitrogen is a potential loss to the environment through nitrate leaching during the subsequent winter period. If the economically optimum application rate of fertilizer nitrogen is applied to arable crops, it is unlikely that soil mineral nitrogen accumulates, except in the case of potatoes. Model calculations have shown that accumulation of soil mineral nitrogen after potatoes can be prevented when the recommended nitrogen application rate is reduced by 25%. In that case tuber yield is reduced by only 2%.     

Response of dryland wheat to fertilizer nitrogen in relation to stored water,rainfall and residual farm yard manure

Yield response of dryland wheat to fertilizer N application in relation to components of seasonal water (available soil moisture and rainfall) and residual farm yard manure (FYM) was studied for five years (1983–84 to 1987–88) on a maize-wheat sequence on sandy loam soils in Hoshiarpur district of Punjab, India. Four rates of N viz. 0, 40, 60 and 80 kg ha^–1 in wheat were superimposed on two residual FYM treatments viz. no FYM (F₀) and 15 t ha^–1 (F₁₅) to preceding maize. FYM application to maize increased the residual NO₃-N content by 19–30 kg ha^–1 in the 180 cm soil profile. For a given moisture distribution, F₁₅ increased attainable yields. Over the years, F₁₅ increased wheat yield by 230 to 520 kg ha^–1. Response to fertilizer N was lower in FYM amended plots than in unamended plots. Available soil moisture at wheat seeding and amount and distribution of rainfall during the vegetative and the reproductive phases of crop development affected N use efficiency by wheat. Available soil moisture at seeding alone accounted for 50% variation in yield. The residual effect of FYM on wheat yield could be accounted for by considering NO₃-N in 180 cm soil profile at seeding. The NO₃-N and available soil moisture at wheat seeding along with split rainfall for two main phases of crop development and fertilizer N accounted for 96% variation in wheat yield across years and FYM treatments.