Simulation on welding thermal effect of AZ61 magnesium alloy based on three-dimensional modeling of vacuum electron beam welding heat source

The deep-penetration thermal effect of keyhole and surface thermal effect of high-temperature metal vapor by the direct-acting mechanism during vacuum electron beam welding were analyzed. According to the thermal effect, a composite source model working for magnesium alloy welding was developed. This model was composed of Gaussian surface source and conical heat source. By the welding experiments on AZ61 magnesium alloy, it can be obtained those two key factors, which were welding heat input and focus coil current (I_f), affected the keyhole thermal effect and weld shape significantly. In order to simulate the shape of keyhole and weld, the varying of focus conditions in model were realized by the power coefficient of composite welding heat source. It can be seen that there was a good consistency between the calculation results and experimental results.     

An analytical model and tomographic calculation of vacuum electron beam welding heat source

According to the analysis to the characteristics of welding heat source and thermal effect, a mathematic model of rotary Gaussian body heat source with incremental power-density-distribution was developed, which was in line with the characteristics of heat source during vacuum electron beam welding. The affecting radius of source model decreases progressively with the law of Gaussian function and the power density varies gradually with the law of exponential function in depth direction. The evaluation of peak-power-density coefficient β and the tomographic calculation of the source model in different focused conditions were discussed. The results showed that the focused conditions, which were the deviation of depth of field in electron beam, were dependent on the coefficient β in the source model. Simulation of thermal effect and the analysis of weld formation in vacuum electron beam welding validated the feasibility of the model.     

Ti2AlNb合金电子束焊接头残余应力及变形的数值模拟

目的 研究平板对接电子束焊接过程中Ti2AlNb合金接头的残余应力及变形规律。方法 采用高斯圆柱体和高斯面组合热源模型模拟了6.6 mm厚的Ti2AlNb合金平板对接电子束焊过程,对比研究了高焊速高束流和低焊速低束流2种工艺参数下焊接接头的残余应力和变形分布规律,并用小孔法测量了焊缝中心及距焊缝中心10 mm位置的残余应力值。结果 在高焊速高束流参数下,获得了熔池体积小、熔池宽度窄(为3.62 mm)、深宽比高的焊缝;在该参数下焊缝横截面上的高应力集中区(应力在900 MPa以上)尺寸较小,其宽度仅为低焊速低束流参数下的89%;同时,在高焊速高束流参数下,焊缝法向变形最大值为0.79 mm,低于低焊速低束流参数下的0.82 mm;模拟计算所得残余应力与实测值的误差在5.64%以内。结论 高束流高焊速工艺具有热输入小、热量集中、加工效率高的特点,有助于获得高应力集中区域小、深宽比高、变形小的焊缝,比低束流低焊速工艺更具优势。     

Microstructural evolution in AZ91D magnesium alloy during electron beam welding

Vacuum electron beam welding can have a low heat input, which means there is a minimum heat affected zone during welding of AZ91D magnesium alloy. From the observed microstructure, the weld of the AZ91D magnesium alloy can be divided into four regions, which are the weld metal zone, a partially-melted zone adjacent to the fusion boundary, a partially-melted zone adjacent to the base metal and the base metal zone. A sharp transition from the fusion zone to the non-melted zone, especially the characteristic partial melting microstructure and nature of the alloy elements, was observed. It was found that significant partial melting had taken place in the very narrow region around the weld metal of the AZ91D magnesium alloy. The Al content of eutectic β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ in the partially-melted zone adjacent to the fusion boundary was close to the content in the continuously precipitated eutectic β particles in the fusion zone and much lower than the eutectic β in the base metal. The fully melted eutectic β-phase coexisted with the partially melted eutectic β phase in the partially-melted zone adjacent to the base metal.     

功率密度对DP590钢激光焊缝熔深及组织的影响

目的研究相同热输入(功率/速度)下激光功率密度(功率/光斑面积)变化对焊缝熔深及组织的影响。方法在保持热输入不变的条件下,对不同功率下1.8 mm厚的DP590钢板进行光纤激光焊接试验,在光学显微镜下检测不同条件下的熔深,在扫描电镜下观察不同条件下的焊缝组织。然后,采用FLOW-3D软件对不同条件下焊接熔池/小孔行为与激光能量吸收进行了计算研究。结果随着功率密度的增加,焊缝熔深总体不断递增,但在速度为0.055 m/s和0.065 m/s时突变。结论通过模拟发现,匙孔吸收的能量影响了焊缝熔深变化。同时,焊缝冷却速率随着焊缝吸收能量的增加而降低,使得焊缝区马氏体组织大小出现差异。     

TC4钛合金激光焊接应力变形有限元分析

基于ANSYS有限元分析软件,采用三维移动热源,对TC4钛合金激光焊接残余应力和变形进行了数值模拟和实验研究.结果表明:钛合金激光焊接产生很大的纵向残余应力,而横向残余应力较小.激光焊接线能量增加时,纵向残余应力拉伸区域变宽,峰值应力降低;而横向残余应力随线能量的增加而升高.在临界焊透规范以上焊接时,随焊接线能量的增大,角变形随之而减小,而横向收缩变形增大.焊件被完全穿透时,线能量对角变形的影响作用降低.钛合金激光焊接变形和残余应力实验结果与数值计算结果吻合性较好.通过焊缝金相实验分析了焊接残余应力和变形与线能量的内在关系.     

钛合金薄板激光和钨极氩弧焊残余应力测试研究

采用小孔释放法对钛合金薄板激光焊和钨极氩弧焊(TIG焊)的焊接残余应力进行了测试，并分析了焊接方法、焊接线能量和焊后热处理对残余应力分布规律的影响。研究结果表明：激光焊残余应力分布规律与普通熔焊方法相似，但其分布区域较窄；在热影响区内，激光焊残余拉应力值比TIG焊的约低100MPa；在焊缝及其熔合线附近，激光焊残余应力却比TIG焊的高。对于不同线能量激光焊接，线能量越大，焊缝越宽，热影响区的残余应力也越大。焊后真空热处理能降低残余应力90％。     

热输入对Inconel 617镍基高温合金激光焊接接头显微组织与力学性能的影响EI北大核心

采用两种热输入不同的焊接工艺参数对3 mm壁厚的Inconel 617镍基高温合金进行激光焊接。通过光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜对焊接接头显微组织进行观察分析,并测试了焊接接头在室温(25℃)及高温(900℃)下的拉伸性能。结果表明:激光焊接热输入对Inconel 617焊接接头显微组织及力学性能影响明显。在高热输入(200 J/mm)条件下,焊缝正面宽度3.88 mm,熔化区中部晶粒尺寸粗大,取向杂乱,树枝晶二次枝晶间距较大(6.71μm),枝晶间碳化物颗粒尺寸较为粗大,枝晶间Mo,Cr等合金元素的凝固偏析较为严重。焊接接头热影响区宽度约0.29 mm,在晶界和晶内形成了γ+碳化物共晶组织,这是由于焊接升温过程中,热影响区内球状碳化物颗粒与周边奥氏体发生组分液化,并在焊后凝固过程中形成共晶。低热输入(90 J/mm)工艺参数获得的焊缝正面宽度为2.28 mm,焊缝呈沿熔合线母材外延生长并沿热流方向定向凝固形成的柱状晶形态。焊缝中部树枝晶二次枝晶间距较小(2.26μm),枝晶间碳化物颗粒尺寸细小,热影响区宽度约0.15 mm。室温(25℃)拉伸测试表明:高热输入下获得的焊接接头由于焊缝中固溶元素偏析造成的局部组织弱化,从焊缝中部破坏,强度与伸长率有所降低,低热输入条件下获得的焊接接头从母材破坏。而高温实验条件下(900℃),母材晶界发生弱化导致所有试样均从母材破坏。     

Comparative evaluation of tungsten inert gas and laser beam welding of AA5083-H321

In this study, the bead-on-plate welds were made on AA5083-H321 alloy plates using both tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding and laser beam (LB) welding processes to study the enhancement of mechanical properties such as weld yield strength and hardness. The low heat input of laser beam welding effectively reduced the size of the fusion zone and heat affected zone compared to tungsten inert gas welding process. High speed LB welding and fast heating and cooling of LB welding process hinders grain growth compared to TIG welding process. The effect of vapourization of volatile alloying elements is also considered. It seems that magnesium evaporation is relatively less in LB welding compared to TIG welding. Tensile testing of the welded joints revealed that LB welding results in superior mechanical properties. It is concluded that LB welding process is more suitable to join AA5083-H321.     

POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT EFFECTS ON FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN AN ELECTRON BEAM WELDMENT

This paper studies the effect of two post-weld heat treatment processes on the fatigue behaviour of an electron beam weldment in 9 mm AISI 4130 steel. Electron beam tempering, in a vacuum chamber, immediately after welding and a traditional furnace tempering treatment were compared. Fatigue crack propagation resistance was assessed by a linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis. The resistance to fatigue crack growth was improved with post weld heat treatment due to residual stress relief and the existence of a toughened tempered microstructure. The specimens with an electron beam post-weld heat treatment showed better fatigue properties than those of furnace-treated specimens. An electron beam post-weld heat treatment causes the fatigue crack growth rate to decrease with increasing energy input and decreasing micro-dot-pattern width. For a furnace post-weld heat treatment, the fatigue crack growth rate decreases with increasing tempering temperature.     

超级双相不锈钢焊条焊缝相比例的影响因素

研究了25％ Cr型超级双相不锈钢焊条焊缝组织,分析了合金成分及焊接工艺对焊缝组织的影响,结果表明,焊缝需要较高的铬镍当量比值方可达到较理想的组织,手工电弧焊时,焊接热输入对焊缝组织的影响不显著,后续焊道的退火作用可提高先焊道中奥氏体相的含量.     

Low Heat Welding of Titanium Materials with a Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser

Titanium materials exhibit a property profile that is just as versatile as that of steel materials. Titanium materials therefore have outstanding properties, such as excellent resistance to corrosion and high strength values at low densities, which makes them ideal for use in the chemical industry and as structural materials in lightweight construction. Due to the high affinity of titanium to atmospheric gases at increased temperatures above 500 °C, titanium components have to be welded in a sophisticated process under inert shielding gas by TIG welding or by an electron beam in a vacuum. A novel innovative laser beam welding process using a pulsed laser with free pulse shaping will be presented here with which oxidation‐free titanium weld seams with excellent mechanical and technological properties can be produced. For this low heat welding process, the otherwise commonly used inert gas covering can be substituted with a shielding gas nozzle. The process‐specific low heat input and the resulting low energy input per unit length both have a positive effect on the microstructure and thus on the mechanical properties. This welding process offers both technological and economical advantages over the processes used up until now, particularly for the machining of complex components and for series production.     

Heißrißgefahr beim Elektronenstrahl-Schweißen metastabiler austenitischer Werkstoffe

The Risk of Hot Cracking during Electron Beam Welding of Metastable Austenitic Steels Electron beam welding of austenitic steels is an economic process for joining heavy section structures. Beside the technological advantages as there are low weld distortion, small shrinkage ratio and deep weld effect resulting from the concentrated heat input several problems arise when a metastable austenitic steel is electron beam welded. The high cooling rate may lead to a primary austenitic solidification of the weld pool increasing the risk of hot cracking. Therefore investigations in electron beam welding with the tulip-shape seam technology were carried out. The results show that the primary austenitic solidification and in consequence the risk of hot cracking can effectively be interfered by the addition of ferrite forming elements. With regard to industrial application an additional alloying wire filler offers itself to be a suitable procedure.     

Laser beam welding of an Oxide Dispersion Strengthened super alloy

Laser beam welding was used successfully to join the Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Super alloy PM1000 for a range of welding conditions. A microscopical study revealed a disturbed structure of dendrites and micro sized particles, which were formed during the molten state of the weld process. Although the particles are a result of melting and clustering of the yttrium oxide particles, tensile tests at high temperatures showed only a minor decrease of strength. It is found that the morphology of the weld, which is closely related to the heat input, has a strong influence on its failure behavior at elevated temperatures.     

电子束焦点位置对TC4板材焊接接头显微组织的影响

目的针对厚板TC4合金真空电子束焊缝组织不均匀的问题,通过改变不同焦点位置,分析焊接接头显微组织特征。方法采用真空电子束对厚度为20 mm的TC4板进行对接试验,用光学显微镜和显微硬度计对焊缝不同位置的显微组织进行观察与分析。结果采用表面聚焦时,可获得成形良好的"I"型焊缝;焊缝显微组织由柱状β相转变组织组成;表面聚焦状态下电子束流密度大,气孔较少,截面成形最好;接头显微硬度沿熔深方向上呈梯度分布,接头底部显微硬度最高,顶部硬度最低。结论不同聚焦状态下焊缝中部晶粒存在较大差别,表面聚焦晶粒最为细小。接头沿熔宽方向上的显微硬度呈"W"型分布,沿熔深方向呈梯度分布。     

Influence of gravity state upon bubble flow in the deep penetration molten pool of vacuum electron beam welding

The governing equations of two-dimensional bubble flow model for gas–liquid two-phase system in deep penetration molten pool of vacuum electron beam welding were developed according to the laws of mass and momentum conservation. The separation models of gas and liquid convections in bubble flow were formed by regarding the gas phase in molten pool as a particle phase, and the vacuolar fraction, velocity slip, pressure gradient and other factors were introduced into the models. The influences of the gravity state upon the convection of bubble flow and the distribution of cavity-type defects in molten pool of AZ91D magnesium alloy were studied by the method of numerical simulation based on the mathematical models. The results showed that the gravity is an important factor to drive the convection of the bubble flow in the deep penetration molten pool during vacuum electron beam welding. The gravity has an impact on the gas distribution in molten pool, thus affects the distribution of cavity-type defects in weld. Because of the gravity contributing to driving the convection of bubble flow, it is conducive to the escape of gas phase in molten pool and reducing the air rate. A larger convection velocity of gas phase is helpful to the escape of gas phase, thus reduce the tendency of cavity-type defects.     

Numerical and experimental investigation on temperature distribution of the discontinuous welding

The main objective of this study is to generate new understanding and improve computer methods for calculating the thermal cycles and temperature distribution of 5A06 aluminum alloy structure during discontinuous welding. Predicting the thermal cycle also provides an estimate of the weld penetration and weld width. The submodeling technique was used to save computing time and improve calculation accuracy. The arc heat input was applied in the weld zone using different forms of surface, volumetric and combined heat flux distribution functions. In order to validate the thermal simulation model, temperature distribution at the weld backside was precisely measured by infrared thermography during the welding process. The simulation results showed that the model is quite sensitive to the energy distribution during the welding process, the effects of the pre-heating and re-heating are significant. The present simulation model can be used as a proper tool to investigate the effect of different metal inertia gas (MIG) process parameters.     

铜与奥氏体不锈钢异种材料电子束焊接

目的研究不同参数下铜钢电子束异种焊接以获得符合要求的接头质量。方法以无氧高导热铜(OFHC)和奥氏体不锈钢(304)作为研究对象,控制扫描幅值、焊接速度等工艺参数,采用500 Hz真空电子束偏束"O"形扫描焊接的方式进行焊接。结果在电子束偏钢侧0.2 mm,电子束流为17 mA,聚焦电流为501 mA,焊接速度为600 mm/min的参数下,添加半径为1 mm,频率为500 Hz的圆形扫描波得到了抗拉性能为310.9MPa、硬度大于180 MPa的优质焊接接头。结论不同参数下的接头宏观均出现焊缝上表面下陷缺陷,接头铜侧热影响区存在大量颗粒状、块状、条状的铜钢固溶体析出相,接头钢侧热影响区存在宽度随扫描波幅值减小而减小的黑色过渡带。     

A transient finite element simulation of the temperature and bead profiles of T-joint laser welds

Laser welding is a high power density welding technology, which has the capability of focusing the beam power to a very small spot diameter. Its characteristics such as high precision and low and concentrated heat input, helps in minimizing the micro-structural modifications, residual stresses and distortions on the welded specimens. In this study, finite element method (FEM) is adopted for predicting the bead geometry in laser welding of 1.6 mm thick AISI304 stainless steel sheets. A three-dimensional finite element model is used to analyze the temperature distribution in a T-joint weld produced by the laser welding process. Temperature-dependent thermal properties of AISI304 stainless steel, effect of latent heat of fusion, and the convective and radiative boundary conditions are included in the model. The heat input to the model is assumed to be a 3D conical Gaussian heat source. The finite element code SYSWELD, along with a few FORTRAN subroutines, is employed to obtain the numerical results. The T-joint welds are made using a Nd:YAG laser having a maximum power of 2 kW in the continuous wave mode. The effect of laser beam power, welding speed and beam incident angle on the weld bead geometry (i.e. depth of penetration and bead width) are investigated. Finally, the shapes of the molten pool predicted by the numerical analysis are compared with the results obtained through the experimentation. The comparison shows that they are in good agreement.     

Bubble flow and the formation of cavity defect in weld pool of vacuum electron beam welding

Seen from gas-liquid two-phase-flow system, the gas phase and liquid phase of bubble flow in weld pool are studied by means of isolated phase based on the conservation of mass and momentum. The two-dimensional fractional flow model of bubble flow in weld pool of vacuum electron beam welding is developed. And the gas distribution and the phenomenon of bubble flow in weld pool of AZ91D magnesium alloy are simulated to analyze the formation and distribution of cavity defects. The results show that the possibility of gas escape in fully penetrated weld pool is much greater than non-penetrated weld. It appears that the probability of cavity defects is lower than non-penetrated weld to some extent. The formation of typical cavity defects is closely related to the flow pattern and flow characteristics of the bubble flow in deep penetration weld pool of vacuum electron beam welding. Higher liquid flow rate is more conducive to the escape of gas in molten metal, so that the final porosity in weld is low.