Effect of ramp rates during rapid thermal annealing of ion implanted boron for formation of ultra-shallow junctions

Over the last couple of years, manufacturers of rapid thermal annealing (RTA) equipment have been aggressively developing lamp-based furnaces capable of achieving ramp-up rates of the order of hundreds of degrees per second. One of the driving forces for such a strategy was the experimental demonstration of 30 nm p-type junctions using a ≈400°C/s ramp-up rate during a spike-anneal (zero soak-time at temperature). It was proposed that the ultra-fast ramp-up was suppressing transient enhanced diffusion (TED) of boron caused by implantation damage. Ultra-fast ramp rate capability was thus embraced as an essential requirement for the next generation of RTA equipment. In this paper, we review more recent experimental data examining the effect of the ramp-up rate during spike- and soak-anneals on enhanced diffusion and ultra-shallow junction formation. The advantage of increasing the ramp-up rate (above ≈50°C/s) is found to be appreciable only during spike-anneals of the shallowest implants. Since TED naturally decreases with decreasing implantation depth, it follows that the observed advantage of a fast ramp-up does not arise from a so-called suppression of TED but from a straightforward reduction of the thermal budget. Since the temperature ramp-down is in practice limited to a rate much smaller than the achievable ramp-up rates (≈75°C/s vs. ≈400°C/s, respectively), a point of diminishing return is quickly reached when attempting to decrease dopant diffusion by increasing the ramp-up rate only. The advantage of a fast ramp-up is similarly mitigated by the finite minimum soak-time achievable in practice, as well as by decreased process control at faster ramp-up rates. While it is apparent that spike-anneals can minimize dopant diffusion while maximizing dopant activation we find that some of the advantages offered by fast ramp-up rates can be duplicated via modification of the implantation parameters. A survey of spike-anneal daa from different sources supports this point.     

The effect of ion-implantation damage on dopant diffusion in silicon during shallow-junction formation

Low-thermal-budget annealing of ion-implanted BF ₂ ⁺ , P, and As in Si was studied for shallow-junction formation. Implant doses were sufficient to amorphize the silicon surface region. Low-temperature furnace annealing and rapid-thermal annealing of ionimplanted boron, phosphorus and arsenic in silicon exhibit a transient enhanced diffusion regime resulting injunction depths considerably deeper than expected. The origin of this transient enhanced diffusion is the annealing of ion-implantation damage in the silicon substrate. We have found that point-defect generation during the annealing of either shallow end-of-range damage or small clusters of point defects dominates the transient enhanced diffusion process depending upon the annealing temperature and time. The net effect of damage annealing is to reduce the activation energy for dopant diffusion by an amount equal to the activation energy of the supersaturation of point defects in silicon. Models which can describe the transient enhancement characteristics in dopant diffusion during both furnace and rapid-thermal annealing of these implants are discussed.     

Characterization of germanium implanted Si1−xGex layer

Characterization of a Si_1−xGe_x layer formed by high-dose germanium implantation and subsequent solid phase epitaxy is reported. Properties of this layer are obtained from electrical measurements on diodes and transistors fabricated in this layer. Results are compared with those of the silicon control devices. It was observed that the germanium implantation created considerable defects that are difficult to eliminate with annealing. These defects result in boron deactivation in the p-type regions of the devices, giving rise to larger resistance. Optimization of the device structure and fabrication process is discussed.     

Optimization of RTA parameters to produce ultra-shallow, highly activated B+, BF 2 + , and As+ ion implanted junctions

The effects of time, temperature, ramp-up, and ramp-down rates with rapid thermal annealing employing a STEAG AST SHS3000 were investigated on 1.0 and 2.0 keV ¹¹B⁺, 2.2, 5.0, and 8.9 keV ⁴⁹BF ₂ ⁺ , and 2 KeV ⁷⁵As⁺, 1E15/cm² samples implanted in a Varian VIISion-80 PLUS ion implanter at 0^o tilt angles. These annealed samples were analyzed by four-point probe, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and in select cases by spreading resistance profiling (SRP) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). To ensure reproducibility and to minimize oxidation enhanced diffusion as an uncontrolled variable, the O₂ background concentration in N₂ was maintained at a controlled low level. Under these conditions, ramp-rates alone were found not to be significant. Spike anneals (1050°C, ～ 0 s) with fast ramp-rates (240°C/s) and fast cool down rates (86°C/s) provided the shallowest junctions, while still yielding good sheet resistance values. Post annealed samples were examined for extended defect levels (by TEM) and trapped interstitial concentrations. Fluorine concentration measurements were employed to qualitatively explain differences in the B diffusion from ¹¹B⁺ and ⁴⁹BF ₂ ⁺ ion implants at various energies. The 2.2 keV ⁴⁹BF ₂ ⁺ “fast” spike annealed sample at 1050°C exhibited limited, if any, enhanced diffusion, yielding a SIMS junction depth of 490Å, an electrical junction of 386Å (by SRP) and a sheet resistance of 406 ohm/sq.     

Thermal activation of shallow boron-ion implants

Boron implanted into n-type Si at 10¹⁵ cm⁻² dose and energies from 500 eV to 1 keV was activated by annealing in nominally pure N₂ and in N₂ with small admixtures of O₂. Effective process times and temperatures were derived by thermal activation analysis of various heating cycles. The lowest thermal budgets used “spike anneals” with heating rates up to 150°C/sec, cooling rates up to 80°C/sec, and minimal dwell time at the maximum temperature. Dopant activation was determined by sheet electrical transport measurements. Surface oxidation was characterized by film thickness ellipsometry. P-n junction depths were inferred from analysis of sheet electrical transport measurements and secondary ion mass spectroscopy profiles. Boron activation increases with boron diffusion from the implanted region. Electrical activation has a thermal activation energy near 5 eV, while boron diffusion has an activation energy near 4 eV. Surface oxide can retard boron diffusion into the ambient for high-temperature anneals.     

Electron microscopic study on residual defects of Al+ or B+ implanted 4H-SiC

The residual defects of Al⁺- or B⁺-implanted 4H-SiC were studied in combination with annealing temperature and implantation temperature using cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy technique. Noticeable defects structure is not observed before post-implantation annealing. But after annealing, a lot of black spots appear in the implanted layer. These black spots are composed of a dislocation loop, parallel to {0001} of 4H-SiC, and strained area at the upper and lower sides of the dislocation loop. This defect structure and its size do not depend on implantation temperature and implanted ion species. The size of defect area depends only on post-implantation annealing temperature. The size grows, when post-annealing temperature is raised.     

Diffusion and trapping of implanted hydrogen in a Si/Si:B/Si structure

H implantation in Si/Si:B/Si structures is a promising route to improve the Smart Cut™ process and transfer thin Si layers of reduced roughness and controlled thickness onto regular Si wafers. However, the mechanisms driving this process are unknown and thus difficult to model or optimize. For this reason, we have experimentally studied the redistribution of H which takes place in such structures after implantation and during annealing using SIMS and TEM. We show that the Si:B layer already traps H during implantation and form platelets parallel to the wafer surface. During annealing, the H atoms implanted in the Si regions are slowly transferred toward the Si:B layer where they are trapped on large platelets which grow further during annealing. Routes to optimize this process go through the minimization of H precipitation in the pure Si regions. This can probably be achieved by optimizing the implantation conditions.     

Strain relief in compositionally graded Si1-xGex formed by high dose Ion implantation

Strain relief mechanisms have been investigated in alloys of Si and Ge formed by high dose ion implantation followed by solid phase epitaxy. Both compressive and tensile strain states were studied by implanting: (i) 200 keV Ge into (001) Si to form Si-rich alloys and (ii) 150 keV²⁹Si into (001) Ge to form Ge-rich alloys. We report that Si-rich compressively strained alloys above a critical implant dose relax via the introduction of a/6(112) partials (bounding stacking faults) when regrown by solid phase epitaxy below ≈600° C. Alloys formed by implanting Si into (001) Ge and regrown at 450° C also undergo strain relaxation above a critical dose but, in this case, relaxation proceeds via the introduction of planar defects + partials, Lomers, and 60° dislocations. The high dose ion implantation technique produces alloys in which the concentration, and hence lattice mismatch, is a Gaussian function of depth from the surface. In this work we present a modification of the conventional critical thickness calculation which includes: (i) balancing forces acting on defects in a strain gradient to define an interface above which strain relief occurs and (ii) integration of the strain energy in the portion of the compositionally graded film above this interface. Critical dose implant plots based on these calculations are presented. The model provides a good fit to cross-sectional and TEM observations of regrown alloys with implant doses above and below the predicted critical dose. A TEM characterization of the strain relieving defects for both compressive and tensile films is presented.     

单晶硅中磷离子注入缺陷的HREM研究

单晶硅中磷离子注入的剖面透射电镜(X-TEM)及HREM研究表明:能量为150keV,剂量为1×10~(13)cm~(-2)的磷离子注入后,在未经退火时,单晶硅表面以下1100A处可产生厚度为1000A的非晶层,非晶区与单晶区的边界为粗糙界面.在非晶区两侧,存在着大量不同类型的缺陷:{311}面缺陷和{111}堆垛层错.它们分布在不同的层区内,对于非晶区而言,形成大体对称的分布状态.接近非晶区,{111}堆垛层错密度较大,远离非晶区,{311}面缺陷密度较大,深层的完整晶体中,上述面缺陷的密度均很小.     

C~+注入Si形成SiC/Si异质结构的椭偏光谱

用椭偏光谱法测量了 ( 35ke V,1 .0× 1 0 18cm- 2 )和 ( 65ke V,1 .0× 1 0 18cm- 2 ) C+ 注入 Si形成的 Si C/Si异质结构 .应用多层介质膜模型和有效介质近似 ,分析了这些样品的 Si C/Si异质结构的各层厚度及主要成份 .研究结果表明 :注 35ke V C+ 的样品在经 1 2 0 0℃、2 h退火后形成的 Si C/Si异质结构 ,其β- Si C埋层上存在一粗糙表面层 ,粗糙表面层主要由β- Si C、非晶 Si和 Si O2 组成 ,而且 β- Si C埋层与体硅界面不同于粗糙表面层与 β- Si C埋层界面 ;注 65ke V C+的样品在经1 2 50℃、1 0 h退火后形成的 Si C/Si异质结构 ,其表层 Si是较     

浅电子陷阱掺杂对AgCl中光电子衰减特性的影响

利用微波吸收介电谱检测技术,对均匀掺杂[Ru（CN）6]4-的立方体Agcl微晶中自由和浅束缚光电子时间分辨谱进行了检测。实验结果表明,样品曝光后,光生电子数量达到极大值所需时间随掺杂浓度增加逐渐变长;且随掺杂浓度的增加,自由光电子衰减时间逐渐从未掺杂时的157ns延长至1071ns。在分析光电子衰减曲线时发现,掺杂影...     

Low frequency dielectric loss of metal/insulator/organic semiconductor junctions in ambient conditions

The complex admittance of metal/oxide/pentacene thin film junctions is investigated under ambient conditions. At low frequencies, a contribution attributed to proton diffusion through the oxide is seen. This diffusion is shown to be anomalous and is believed to be also at the origin of the bias stress effect observed in organic field effect transistors. At higher frequencies, two dipolar contributions are evidenced, attributed to defects located one at the organic/oxide interface or within the organic, and the other in the bulk of the oxide. These two dipolar responses show different dynamic properties that manifest themselves in the admittance in the form of a Debye contribution for the defects located in the oxide, and of a Cole–Cole contribution for the defects related to the organic.     

Annealing studies of photoluminescence spectra from multiple Er3+ centers in er-implanted GaN

A study of selectively excited photoluminescence (PL) at ∼ 6K in Er-im planted GaN as a function of annealing temperature (400–1000°C) has detected nine different Er³⁺ centers with distinct ∼ 1540 nm ⁴I_13/2 → ⁴I_15/2 Er³⁺ PL spectra and different activation temperatures. However, most of the optically active implanted Er atoms are incorporated at annealing temperatures as low as 400°C on a single type of center for which PL can only be excited efficiently by direct intra-4f shell absorption and is not strongly pumped by either above-gap or broad-band below-gap absorption. This strongly suggests that this high-concentration Er³⁺ center is an isolated, isoelectronic center consistent with Er³⁺ substituted on a Ga site. In contrast, a very small fraction of the Er atoms that form a variety of Er-defect/impurity complexes dominate the Er³⁺ emission spectra excited by above-gap and broad-band below-gap absorption because of their larger cross sections for both carrier capture and optical absorption.     

Tunable Oxygen Diffusion and Electronic Conduction in SrTiO3 by Dislocation‐Induced Space Charge Fields

Plastic strain engineering was applied to induce controllable changes in electronic and oxygen ion conductivity in oxides by orders of magnitude, without changing their nominal composition. By using SrTiO₃ as a model system of technological importance, and by combining electrical and chemical tracer diffusion experiments with computational modeling, it is revealed that dislocations alter the equilibrium concentration and distribution of electronic and ionic defects. The easier reducibility of the dislocation cores increases the n‐type conductivity by 50 times at oxygen pressures below 10^?5 atm at 650 °C. At higher oxygen pressures the p‐type conductivity decreases by 50 times and the oxygen diffusion coefficient reduces by three orders of magnitude. The strongly altered electrical and oxygen diffusion properties in SrTiO₃ arise because of the existence of overlapping electrostatic fields around the positively charged dislocation cores. The findings and the approach are broadly important and have the potential for significantly impacting the functionalities of electrochemical and/or electronic applications such as thin film oxide electronics, memristive systems, sensors, micro‐solid oxide fuel cells, and catalysts, whose functionalities rely on the concentration and distribution of charged point defects.     

Electron microscopy of surface-crater defects on HgCdTe/CdZnTe(211)B epilayers grown by molecular-beam epitaxy

Surface-void defects observed in Hg_1−xCd_xTe (x ∼ 0.2–0.4) alloys grown by molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) have been investigated using scanning and high-resolution transmission-electron microscopy (HRTEM) as well as atomic force microscopy (AFM). These surface craters, which have been attributed to Hg-deficient growth conditions, were found to originate primarily within the HgCdTe epilayer, rather than at the CdZnTe substrate, and they were associated with the local development of polycrystalline morphology. High-resolution observations established the occurrence of finely spaced HgCdTe/Te intergrowths with semicoherent and incoherent grain boundaries, as well as small HgCdTe inclusions embedded within the Te grains. This study is the first time that high-resolution electron microscopy has been used to investigate this type of defect.     

Structural study of GaN grown on (001) GaAs by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy

Detailed transmission electron microscope (TEM) and transmission electron diffraction (TED) examination has been performed on organometallic vapor phase epitaxial GaN layers grown on (001) GaAs substrate to investigate microstructures and phase stability. TED and TEM results exhibit the occurrence of a mixed phase of GaN. The wurtzite (α) phase grains are embedded in the zinc-blende (β) phase matrix. It is shown that there are two types of the wurtzite GaN phase, namely, the epitaxial wurtzite and the tilted wurtzite. The tilted wurtzite grains are rotated some degrees ranging from ∼5° to ∼35° regarding the GaAs substrate. A simple model is presented to describe the occurrence of the mixed phases and the two types of the wurtzite phase.     

氦诱生微孔对硅二极管漏电流特性的改善

高剂量的氦离子注入并热处理在硅中形成对金属具有高吸杂作用的微孔。以低金属杂质浓度的硅平面二极管的反向漏电流为指标，研究了吸除的热处理过程对微孔吸杂效果的影响。在适当的热处理温度和冷却条件下，观测到二极管反向漏电流的显著改善，部分样品漏电流可降低3个数量级。     

Elimination of Inclusions in (CdZn)Te Substrates by Post-grown Annealing

Post-grown annealing of (211) (CdZn)Te substrates has been used for elimination of Te and Cd inclusions with the objective of improving the yield of inclusion-free substrates for MBE growth of (HgCd)Te. Different annealing temperatures and Cd/Te overpressures were used to find the optimum annealing conditions. Te inclusions were significantly reduced by Cd-rich annealing at temperatures higher than 660°C, together with increasing the infrared transmittance at 10 μm to above 60%. Good crystalline quality was preserved after the annealing. Te-rich annealing at 700°C was found to be the optimum method for elimination of most of the Cd inclusions; infrared transmittance at 10 μm was suppressed by the annealing, however. Final Cd-rich annealing is recommended for infrared transmittance improvement.     

Microstructural and optical characterization of CdTe(211)B/ZnTe/Si(211) grown by molecular beam epitaxy

CdTe layers have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy on 3 inch nominal Si(211) under various conditions to study the effect of growth parameters on the structural quality. The microstructure of several samples was investigated by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The orientation of the CdTe layers was affected strongly by the ZnTe buffer deposition temperature. Both single domain CdTe(133)B and CdTe(211)B were obtained by selective growth of ZnTe buffer layers at different temperatures. We demonstrated that thin ZnTe buffer layers (<2 nm) are sufficient to maintain the (211) orientation. CdTe deposited at ∼300°C grows with its normal lattice parameter from the onset of growth, demonstrating the effective strain accommodation of the buffer layer. The low tilt angle (<1°) between CdTe[211] and Si[211] indicates that high miscut Si(211) substrates are unnecessary. From low temperature photoluminescence, it is shown that Cd-substituted Li is the main residual impurity in the CdTe layer. In addition, deep emission bands are attributed to the presence of As_Te and Ag_Cd acceptors. There is no evidence that copper plays a role in the impurity contamination of the samples.     

Position-Controlled Functionalization of Vacancies in Silicon by Single-Ion Implanted Germanium Atoms

Special point defects in semiconductors have been envisioned as suitable components for quantum-information technology. The identification of new deep centers in silicon that can be easily activated and controlled is a main target of the research in the field. Vacancy-related complexes are suitable to provide deep electronic levels but they are hard to control spatially. With the spirit of investigating solid state devices with intentional vacancy-related defects at controlled position, the functionalization of silicon vacancies is reported on here by implanting Ge atoms through single-ion implantation, producing Ge-vacancy (GeV) complexes. The quantum transport through an array of GeV complexes in a silicon-based transistor is investigated. By exploiting a model based on an extended Hubbard Hamiltonian derived from ab initio results, anomalous activation energy values of the thermally activated conductance of both quasi-localized and delocalized many-body states are obtained, compared to conventional dopants. Such states are identified, forming the upper Hubbard band, as responsible for the experimental sub-threshold transport across the transistor. The combination of the model with the single-ion implantation method enables future research for the engineering of GeV complexes toward the creation of spatially controllable individual defects in silicon for applications in quantum information technology.