An overview of means-end theory: potential application in consumer-oriented food product design

This paper presents an overview of the means-end chain theory and associated techniques, and discusses the virtues and shortcomings of its potential application in consumer-oriented food product design. This overview, based on literature in the food area, presents also the process of conducting a means-end study by drawing on previous research on consumers’ motivations regarding meal choice. Finally, the usefulness of means-end studies in the context of consumer-oriented food product design is evaluated and future research trends in this area are discussed.     

Core dimensions of food-related lifestyle: A new instrument for measuring food involvement,innovativeness and responsibility

Segmentation is crucial for targeting product development initiatives and marketing communication nationally as well as internationally. In this paper we use the Food Related Lifestyle instrument that has been applied in the food arena for many years as a ‘stepping stone’ to develop a contemporary, targeted and smaller version of the Food Related Lifestyle instrument, still following the original theoretical framework. In particular we focus on three dimensions that have proven to be of core value in segmentation: food involvement; food innovativeness; and, food responsibility. Based on data collection in six countries (DK, AU, HU, UK, USA and NZ) across two rounds from 2017 to 2019 (total N = 3396), we propose a new core instrument consisting of 15 items that have been tested for cross-cultural validity. Next, we used these three dimensions for segmentation across the six countries by applying multi-level latent class analysis. A solution leading to five different segments could be identified; the foodies, the moderates, the adventurous, the uninvolved and the conservatives. The segments were profiled by means of Schwartz’s ten value domains and measures of self-reported food-related behaviour to check for nomonological validity. We conclude that the 15 items were cross-culturally valid, could be used for segmentation across six countries, and that segment profiling by means of Schwartz values and behavioural items were in line with the theoretical background.     

Comparing methods for measuring consumer willingness to pay for a basic and an improved ready made soup product

Willingness to pay (WTP) for a basic chilled soup product and for an improved, self-heating version was measured by methods experimentally varied according to a 2 × 3 design, varying the basic measurement approach (contingent valuation, experimental auction, conjoint analysis) and the use of real vs. game money. Measurement protocols for each approach were adapted in order to allow uniform methods factors across the design. WTP was measured for 551 shoppers recruited in a shopping centre, using personal interviewing and closed questioning. Shoppers in the real money condition received an endowment at the beginning of the task. Drawing on constructs derived from research in consumer price information processing, subject’s reference price, price involvement, and price thought style were also measured. Results showed no differences between use of contingent valuation and experimental auction, and between the use of real vs. game money. Conjoint analysis led to lower WTP estimates for the product improvement than the other two methods Reference price and one dimensions of price involvement – value consciousness – were related to WTP estimates for the base product.     

Choice probability for apple juice based on novel processing techniques: Investigating the choice relevance of mean-end-chains

The main aim of this study is to investigate an old challenge for means-end chain (MEC) theory; the lack of demonstration for means-end chains choice relevance. Even though MEC has become a commonly used tool in commercial market research and has been widely used in applied consumer research, within the core of academic consumer research, MEC has been almost ignored. One plausible explanation for this lack of interest may be that studies linking MEC data to choice have been few. In this study, we are to investigate how values and consequences generated from a previous MEC study structure can be linked to likelihood of choice.Hypotheses about European consumers’ likelihood of choice for novel processed juice are stated and tested in a rating based conjoint study in Norway, Denmark, Hungary and Slovakia. In the study, consumers probability of choice for high pressure processed (HPP) juice and pulsed electric field (PEF) juice are compared with their probability of choice for pasteurized juice and freshly produced apple juice, and consumer choices are tried explained by values and consequences generated from a MEC study. The study support, at least partly, that means-end chain structures’ have choice relevance.     

Neophobia,personal consumer values and novel food acceptance

For some years now, the food sector has been faced with an increasingly competitive and globalised market and much more stringent demand from consumers. This situation has forced food producers and processors, among other things, to innovate and develop new products in order to improve their position in the competition. However, innovations in the food industry suffer a high market failure rate, partly due to a phenomenon known as neophobia, which is the rejection some people express towards new or unfamiliar foods.This paper aims to analyze whether variation in the complexity and the associated benefits and values in the choice structure relating to novel food products can be linked to the consumer’s degree of phobia towards novel foods. These objectives are pursued through a study based on the “means-end chain” theory. The results show that consumption decisions regarding novel food products have an important emotional component that is more pronounced in neophobic subjects, suggesting that the greater the reluctance to consume the product, the more complex the underlying choice process.     

The effect of advertising format and means-end information on consumer expectations for apples

The effect of advertising content and format on consumer expectations for a new apple variety was examined. In particular, the impact of presentation format (whether advertisements contained a picture of the new apple variety or not) and textual advertising claims, which communicated means-end information of differential cognitive strength and structure, was considered. While expectations raised by advertising featuring pictorial information differed from those raised by textual only information, differential means-end chain information did not influence product expectancy. Consumers reacted negatively to a photo of the apple, which was predominantly red in appearance. The pictorial information influenced consumers varying in need for cognition (NFC) differently. As predicted, a picture of the advertised apple variety influenced individuals high in NFC to a greater extent than those low in NFC. A critical examination of the experimental execution suggested a need to align procedures with those used in expectations research in marketing.     

Understanding consumers’ cognitive structures with regard to high pressure processing: A means-end chain application to the chilled ready meals category

Although new process technologies can potentially offer superior competitive advantages in the marketplace, they can also represent a high-risk effort for those manufacturers that ignore consumers’ needs and value systems during the new product development (NPD) process. The overall aim of the study was to gain insights into consumers’ cognitions with regard to high pressure processed chilled ready meals. In-depth one-to-one laddering interviews based on means-end chain theory were conducted in-home with 40 purchasers of chilled ready meals. The research showed that consumers were generally receptive towards the concept of high pressure processed chilled ready meals. However, perceived food safety risks related to low awareness levels of the technology, coupled with misconceptions regarding the influence of high pressure processing (HPP) on elements of eating quality represented significant barriers to consumer acceptance. Hierarchical value maps (HVM) revealed important insights into the motivational cognitive structures of specific consumer segments with important implications for the technical development and strategic marketing of high pressure processed foods.     

Consumption frequency and degree of abstraction: A study using the laddering technique on beef consumers

Consumer behaviour is being marked by changes in consumption trends. Hence, a knowledge and understanding of how consumers reflect key aspects of their personality in the products they purchase and consume is of vital importance to producers wishing to enhance their strategic position in the marketplace. The aim of this study is to investigate the consumption decision structure of beef, to assess the variation in complexity as a function of consumption levels. In order to meet these objectives, we designed a survey based on the means-end chain theory, using the laddering interview technique. The result shows that as consumers’ consumption levels increase, their decision-making processes become more complex, and therefore the reach higher levels of abstraction in the means-end chain. This reveals the incorporation of a greater number of abstract attributes (mainly credence attributes), psychological consequences and terminal values by consumers with higher consumption levels, who incorporate more personality traits into their decisions. Cultural identification and high self-esteem are the main components in the final choice of high-frequency beef consumers. The importance of price issues is apparent among occasional consumers. These findings can be used by firms within the beef sector in order to adapt marketing strategies to different consumption frequency segments.     

An Italian case study for the Process-Target-Cost evaluation of the ohmic treatment and aseptic packaging of a vegetable soup (minestrone)

In this paper, a quasi-target costing technique was used in order to determine the Process-Target-Cost (PTC) of the ohmic treatment and aseptic packaging of a vegetable soup. This technique was applied through a case study, that compares two products with (ideally) identical quality levels. Specifically, the unit production costs have been evaluated comparing the cold chain of a frozen ready-to-heat soup with the traditional supply chain of an ohmically treated soup. Firstly, the boundary conditions for the comparison were fixed, in order to be representative of a typical Italian product along with its supply chain. Afterwards, the unit costs of the frozen product chain were calculated, from the purchase of raw materials to the distribution and in shop storage of the end product. These unit costs were then assumed for the ohmic product, so as to achieve a maximum PTC of its treatment and packaging equal to 1.42306 €/kg. The value of PTC corresponds to 65.89% of the total costs of the ohmic product.     

Consumers of organic foods – value segments and liking of bread

Five, quite different white pan breads were chosen from twelve samples using Principal Component Analysis. Milling, baking, sensory assessment and sample preparation are described in [Kihlberg, I., Öström, Å., Johansson, L., & Risvik, E. (2006). Sensory qualities of plain white pan bread – influence of farming system, year of harvest and baking technique. Journal of Cereal Science, 43(1), 15–30]. A consumer acceptance test was conducted on 184 consumers of organic products in two age groups, ⩽30 and >30 years. The selected breads were tasted and scored for liking. Subsequent to the tasting, the consumers responded to a questionnaire including a complete set of the 56 Schwartz values and 10 statements related to issues of specific interest. Results confirmed the main groups of the near universal structure of values suggested by Schwartz and revealed different segments among organic consumers. Consumption frequency was also related to the values. Consumer groups differed significantly in values and in liking of breads. Among the most liked breads were both organic and conventional breads. The majority of consumers considered that organic food tastes better than conventional and that consumption of organic bread should increase. Moreover, about 50% declared that they would not buy an organic food product that was appreciably higher in price than a corresponding conventional food product.     

全球价值链分工环境下中国家具企业竞争力升级研究

家具行业价值链分工直接受到社会变迁、生产力发展和企业间的协同发展影响,同时价值链分工对家具行业经济发展也产生一定的影响。根据价值链上不同环节的利润分配情况,目前中国内地的家具生产厂商在全球价值链分工中处于非战略性生产环节。通过分析全球价值链下中国家具企业升级制约因素,提出中国家具企业竞争力升级对策。     

新时期我国粮食安全管理的数字化研究

当下，新一轮科技革命突发猛进，数字化技术正在迅速发展并与传统行业进行深度融合，推动世界进入一个数据驱动决策的智慧时代。科技的创新和数字化转型，为加快粮食产业高质量发展赋予了新动能，是保障粮食安全的重要支撑。本文从日常粮食供应链安全和应急状态下粮食安全两方面着手，详细阐述了数字化建设在粮食安全中发挥的重要作用：一方面，数字化技术对加强日常粮食供应链产、运、储、加、销各环节的多主体信息共享和交互、助力粮食生产的精细化、促进粮食供需关系的动态平衡等具有重要作用；另一方面，数字化技术可以捕捉系统的细节逻辑和随机性，对建立突发事件下的粮食安全的应急管理模型具有重要作用，可以有效提升粮食储备能力、优化粮食储备布局，加强粮食监测预警能力、达成粮食动态供需平衡，健全粮食应急保供能力，实现粮食区域协同调度。本研究有助于搭建粮食应急数字化平台，推进粮食应急智慧决策，为信息化时代我国粮食安全的数字化建设提供支持。     

不同电极结构对冷却鸡胸肉阻抗特征值响应效果的影响

采用针式电极和片式电极测量冷却鸡胸肉的阻抗幅值和相位角,研究测量方向和测试样品厚度与鸡胸肉阻抗特征值的关系;通过主成分分析得分图和DI值相结合的方法评价两种电极对鸡胸肉阻抗特征值区分辨别的能力;再对采用针式电极获得的鸡胸肉阻抗谱进行定量的方差分析,用统计方法确定针式电极对测试样品厚度变化的响应能力。结果表明:垂直于鸡胸肉肌纤维方向测量的阻抗幅值大于平行于肌纤维方向的阻抗幅值,符合生物组织的各向异性;同一频率下测试样品厚度40 mm时的阻抗幅值高于测试样品厚度20 mm时的阻抗幅值;针式电极对不同测量方向阻抗特征值的区分效果好,辨别值DI=85.47%;使用针式电极测得鸡胸肉样品从低频到高频的阻抗特征值的差值转换来区分不同样品厚度具有统计学上的显著意义（P<0.05）。通过针式电极垂直于鸡胸肉肌纤维方向测量阻抗特征值的准确性高,可以为后续采用电阻抗技术实现鸡胸肉在线快速检测提供参考。     

Consumer perceived value of environmentally friendly apparel: an empirical study of Chinese consumers

This empirical study responded to the need for better understanding of consumer-desired values from environmentally friendly apparel (EFA) consumption to support effective product development and marketing. A multi-dimensional consumer perceived value (CPV) model (i.e. social, emotional, quality, and price values) was utilized to identify the desired EFA values among Chinese consumers. From a national survey of Chinese consumers, 1388 eligible returns were collected. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted for data analysis. The scales of each value construct were proven reliable and valid and the CPV model exhibited a satisfactory model-to-data fit. Four value constructs accounted for most of the variance of CPV (78%). Social value is the most desired value, followed by price, emotional, and quality values. Communicating the social contribution of EFA consumption to consumers is crucial as the social responsibility movement in China favors a fundamental consumer lifestyle change toward sustainability.     

To cook or not to cook: A means-end study of motives for choice of meal solutions

Few studies have approached the issue of the motivations for choice of meal solutions. This is, however, a matter of undeniable importance when individuals select, purchase, prepare and consume foods. This study resorted to the means-end chain theory and laddering interviews to conduct an analysis of the motives behind the choice of meal solutions of 50 Dutch subjects. The analysis yielded hierarchical value maps for homemade meals, ready meals, take-out and eating out (as general meal solutions), and for frozen pizza and chilled hotpot (as specific ready meals). Results show that the replacement of homemade meals by ready meals is, to a great extent, dependent on how subjects trade-off perceived sensory and health-related benefits with convenience features. Meal context, a highly positive evaluation of homemade cooking and some moral-based criticism towards saving time and energy in food preparation may nevertheless play a considerable role in meal solutions’ choice.     

Means-end chains analysis of extra virgin olive oil purchase and consumption behavior

Consumption and purchase behavior towards extra virgin olive oil are not well understood in the US. Soft laddering interviews were conducted with 63 Northern California consumers and means-end chains analysis on the interview data revealed common grounds of consumption and buying motivations for three different a priori defined consumer segments. Consumption motivational structures were more similar across the different consumer segments than purchasing ones. Consumers who purchased only local extra virgin olive oil had simpler perceptual orientations than consumers who purchased imported extra virgin olive oils or both imported and local oils. Several different consumer values could be associated with consequences that were linked to just one attribute. On the other hand, one particular value could also be associated with a few different attributes. These findings provide opportunities for the olive oil industry to design products that will better satisfy consumer values and needs.     

卷烟商业企业转型中价值链的研究

确立现代流通价值链共赢战略在卷烟商业企业转型过程中愈来愈受到重视。本文试图以价值链作为企业战略分析方法,在分析卷烟商业企业开展价值链研究的意义、基本思想以及基本框架基础上,对建立卷烟商业企业以客户为导向的价值系统进行了探讨,构造了为客户创造价值战略理念的价值系统模型;讨论了系统思考、价值链向上下游延伸、提高协同效率、实现企业整体价值最大化,以及企业无形价值链的充分发掘和增值等问题。      

Consumer purchase motives and product perceptions: a laddering study on vegetable oil in three countries

A means-end approach is proposed to analyse cross-cultural differences in product preferences, product perception and purchase motives. Using a modified version of the laddering technique, data on consumer preference, perception and purchase motives concerning vegetable oil were collected in Denmark, England and France. The results show considerable differences between the three consumer groups both with regard to general knowledge about vegetable oil and with regard to product-specific preferences and purchase motives.     

The role of attitudes,subjective norm,perceived control and habit in the consumption of ready meals and takeaways in Great Britain

The theory of planned behaviour was used to examine the consumption of ready meals and purchase of takeaways by British consumers. Overall there was partial support for the theory as a predictor of consumption. For both food products attitudes were the best predictor of behavioural intention. Subjective norm was important for ready meals but not for takeaways while perceived control was not a predictor for either food. An additional variable, habit, was included in the study. This increased predictive power but reduced the influence of attitudes. For both food products, behavioural intentions were the best predictor of behaviour for a model including behavioural intentions, perceived behavioural control and habit. The difficulties caused with the inclusion of habit are recognised. In a separate analysis, value for money was the most important of three beliefs investigated for each product for those who intended to consume ready meals or purchase takeaways over the course of the following week (intenders) and those who had no intention of doing so (non-intenders). Beliefs differed significantly between the two groups with intenders having more positive beliefs about the convenience products. A focus on value for money marketing strategies is suggested.     

包装材料阻隔性对德州扒鸡的品质影响分析

为研究包装材料阻隔性对扒鸡贮藏期间品质的影响,采用三种不同阻隔性包装材料对德州扒鸡进行真空包装,并对扒鸡色差、TBA值、挥发性成分等理化指标进行检测分析,同时进行感官评定。结果表明:普通材料包装组扒鸡在贮藏过程中L*值、a*值快速下降,在第5 d即出现明显褐变(L*值由50.02降为46.34,a*值由16.33降为13.17),而两种高阻隔包装扒鸡贮藏过程中的L*值、a*值与初始值(L*值:50.02;a*值:16.33)均无显著差异(P0.05);两高阻隔包装组保存20 d后,TBA值分别为0.60 mg/kg和0.65 mg/kg,显著低于普通包装组(0.76 mg/kg)(P0.05);电子鼻和GC-MS分析结果表明高阻隔包装组保留了更多的含硫挥发性成分和香辛料挥发性成分;随着贮藏时间的延长,普通包装组出现哈喇味,而高阻隔包装组未出现。结论:高阻隔真空包装可有效保持扒鸡原有色泽,延缓脂肪氧化,并可较好地保持扒鸡的原有风味。