Evaluation of linked protonation effects in protein binding reactions using isothermal titration calorimetry

A theoretical development in the evaluation of proton linkage in protein binding reactions by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is presented. For a system in which binding is linked to protonation of an ionizable group on a protein, we show that by performing experiments as a function of pH in buffers with varying ionization enthalpy, one can determine the pK(a)'s of the group responsible for the proton linkage in the free and the liganded states, the protonation enthalpy for this group in these states, as well as the intrinsic energetics for ligand binding (delta H(o), delta S(o), and delta C(p)). Determination of intrinsic energetics in this fashion allows for comparison with energetics calculated empirically from structural information. It is shown that in addition to variation of the ligand binding constant with pH, the observed binding enthalpy and heat capacity change can undergo extreme deviations from their intrinsic values, depending upon pH and buffer conditions.     

Two-dimensional 1H and 15N NMR titration studies of hisactophilin

We have used two-dimensional 1H-15N heteronuclear single quantum correlation spectroscopy to measure the pH dependence of backbone amide group chemical shifts in the actin binding protein hisactophilin over the pH range 5.7-11.1. Most of the resonances can be analyzed using a simple equation involving a single apparent ionization constant, pK(app). The majority of resonances in the protein titrate with pK(app) values of 5.6-7.4. The results can be rationalized in terms of titration of many histidine residues in hisactophilin. The titration data provide direct experimental support for the proposed models of the atomic basis of actin and membrane binding by hisactophilin.     

Differential inhibition of lysophosphatidate signaling by volatile anesthetics

cAMP receptor protein (CRP) is involved in regulation of expression of several genes in Escherichia coli. The protein is a homodimer and each monomer is folded into two distinct structural domains. The mechanism of the biological activity of the protein may involve the interaction between the subunits and domains. In order to determine the interaction between the subunits or domains of CRP, we have studied the reversible denaturation of the protein by guanidine hydrochloride. The unfolding and refolding kinetics of CRP was monitored using stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy at 20 degrees C and pH 7.9. The results of CRP denaturation indicate that the transition can be described by a three-state model: (CRP native)2<=> 2 (CRP native)<=>2 (CRP denatured). The faster process, characterized by the relaxation time tau 2 = 80 +/- 3 ms, corresponds to the dissociation of CRP dimer into monomers. The slower process has the relaxation time tau t = 1.9 +/- 0.1 s and corresponds to the cooperative unfolding of CRP monomer. The free energy change in the absence of denaturant upon CRP dissociation is delta G dis degrees = 46.9 +/- 2.5 kJ/mol and for monomer unfolding delta G unf degrees = 30.9 +/- 1.3 kJ/mol. The thermal unfolding of CRP was studied by circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy at various guanidine hydrochloride concentrations. It has been found that the native protein is maximally stable at about 21 +/- 0.3 degrees C and is denatured upon heating and cooling from this temperature. The apparent free energy change for CRP unfolding at 21 degrees C is equal to 30.5 +/- 0.4 kJ/mol and the apparent specific heat change is equal to delta Cp, app = 10.7 +/- 0.7 kJ mol-1 K-1. The predicted values of cold denaturation midpoint is equal to tau G = -18.8 +/- 1.5 degrees C and for high-temperature transition tau G = 63.1 +/- 1.5 degrees C. The predicted midpoint of high-temperature unfolding transition is about the same as determined experimentally.     

Isothermal titration microcalorimetric studies for the binding of octenoyl-CoA to medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase

We investigated the binding of octenoyl-CoA to pig kidney medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) by isothermal titration microcalorimetry under a variety of experimental conditions. At 25 degrees C in 50 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7.6 (ionic strength of 175 mM), the binding is characterized by the stoichiometry (n) of 0.89 mole of octenoyl-CoA/(mole of MCAD subunit), delta G = -8.75 kcal/mol, delta H = -10.3 kcal/mol, and delta S = -5.3 cal mol(-1) K(-1), suggesting that formation of MCAD-octenoyl-CoA is enthalpically driven. By employing buffers with various ionization enthalpies, we discerned that formation of the MCAD-octenoyl-CoA complex, at pH 7.6, accompanies abstraction (consumption) of 0.52 +/- 0.15 proton/(MCAD subunit) from the buffer media. We studied the effects of pH, ionic strength, and temperature on the thermodynamics of MCAD-octenoyl-CoA interaction. Whereas the ionic strength does not significantly influence the above interaction, the pH of the buffer media exhibits a pronounced effect. The pH dependence of the association constant of MCAD +octenoyl-CoA <==> MCAD-octenoyl-CoA yields a pKa for the free enzyme of 6.2. Among thermodynamic parameters, whereas delta G remains invariant as a function of temperature, delta H and deltaS(standard) both decrease with an increase in temperature. At temperatures of < 25 degrees C, delta G is dominated by favorable entropic contributions. As the temperature increases, the entropic contributions progressively decrease, attain a value of zero at 23.8 degrees C, and then becomes unfavorable. During this transition, the enthalpic contributions become progressively favorable, resulting in an enthalpy-entropy compensation. The temperature dependence of delta H yields the heat capacity change (delta Cp(0)) of -0.37 +/- 0.05 kcal mol(-1) K(-1), attesting to the fact that the binding of octenoyl-CoA to MCAD is primarily dominated by the hydrophobic forces. The thermodynamic data presented herein are rationalized in light of structural-functional relationships in MCAD catalysis.     

Thermodynamic analysis of the heparin interaction with a basic cyclic peptide using isothermal titration calorimetry

Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) was examined as part of a continuing study of the interaction of proteins and peptides with the glycosaminoglycan heparin. BNP was tentatively identified as a heparin-binding protein on the basis of its cyclic structure and the high frequency of the basic amino acid residues, lysine and arginine. Thermodynamic analysis using isothermal titration calorimetry confirmed heparin binding to BNP with a micromolar Kd. Surprisingly, despite the high frequency (22%) of basic residues in BNP, only a small portion of the free energy of this interaction resulted from ionic contributions under physiologic conditions. The contribution of polar amino acids, representing 28% of BNP, was next examined in a variety of different buffers. These experiments demonstrated the transfer of five protons from buffer to BNP on heparin binding, suggesting that hydrogen bonding between the polar residues of BNP and heparin is a major factor contributing to the free energy of BNP binding to heparin. Hydrophobic forces apparently play only a small role in binding. Heparin contains few nonpolar functional groups, and a positive change in heat capacity (DeltaCp = 1 kcal/mol) demonstrates the loss of polar residues on BNP-heparin binding.     

Thermodynamic cycle between DNA and RNA constituents for conformation of the sugar ring from nuclear magnetic resonance study

The effect of a structural change of ribose to deoxyribose, by replacement of 2'-OH by 2'-H, on the conformational equilibrium of the sugar ring is described in terms of one thermodynamic cycle. The method is based on the observation that conformational correlations of the sugar ring--side chain ensemble in DNA and RNA components show one general pattern, reflecting an intrinsic physical property of this ensemble. The pattern determines a choice of model systems to study. The systems consist of pairs of DNA and RNA components, nucleosides and nucleotides in aqueous solution, where all conformational factors are fully controlled. This approach allowed us to describe the thermodynamic cycle and measure its fundamental parameters, equilibrium constants and free energy differences, delta delta G, from a nuclear magnetic resonance study. The delta delta G values as determined for pairs of ribo- and deoxyribo-nucleosides in classes of syn-constrained and anti-preferred models, are comparable and lie in a narrow range, delta delta G = 1.7 +/- 0.1 [kJ/mol]. For pairs of ribo- and deoxyribo-nucleotides, the delta delta G values also lie in narrow ranges, delta delta G = 1.7 +/- 0.1 [kJ/mol] for 5'-phosphate nucleotides and delta delta G = 1.9 +/- 0.1 [kJ/mol] for 3'-phosphate nucleotides, i.e. similar to those observed for nucleosides. The measured quantity, delta delta G, is generally observed in a relatively narrow range, delta delta G = 1.75 +/- 0.15 [kJ/mol], irrespective of the class of the model system. This quantity represents a "pure" constant contribution, pe one sugar moiety, as a "driving force" for the N-->S shift in the sugar ring conformational equilibrium, when one compares RNA and DNA. This important thermodynamic quantity, delta delta G, has not hitherto been determined for nucleic acids. Ultimately the delta delta G quantity is revealed in the tendency to adopt S(C2'endo) sugar puckering domain by the majority of DNA structures, whereas RNA generally adopt an N(C3'endo) puckering domain. A possible biological significance of the delta delta G quantity may include evolutionary aspects of nucleic acids.     

Recombinant human erythrocyte cytochrome b5

The gene encoding the human erythrocyte form of cytochrome b5 (97 residues in length) has been prepared by mutagenesis of an expression vector encoding lipase-solubilized bovine liver microsomal cytochrome b5 (93 residues in length) (Funk et al., 1990). Efficient expression of this gene in Escherichia coli has provided the first opportunity to obtain this protein in quantities sufficient for physical and functional characterization. Comparison of the erythrocytic cytochrome with the trypsin-solubilized bovine liver cytochrome b5 by potentiometric titration indicates that the principal electrostatic difference between the two proteins results from two additional His residues present in the human erythrocytic protein. The midpoint reduction potential of this protein determined by direct electrochemistry is -9 +/- 2 mV vs SHE at pH 7.0 (mu = 0.10 M, 25.0 degrees C), and this value varies with pH in a fashion that is consistent with the presence of a single ionizable group that changes pKa from 6.0 +/- 0.1 in the ferricytochrome to 6.3 +/- 0.1 in the ferrocytochrome with delta H degrees = -3.2 +/- 0.1 kcal/mol and delta S degrees = -11.5 +/- 0.3 eu (pH 7.0, mu = 0.10). The 1D 1H NMR spectrum of the erythrocytic ferricytochrome indicates that 90% of the protein binds heme in the "major" orientation and 10% of the protein binds heme in the "minor" orientation (pH 7.0, 25 degrees C) with delta H degrees = -2.9 +/- 0.3 kcal/mol and delta S degrees = -5.4 +/- 0.9 eu for this equilibrium.     

EDTA滴定法结合酸碱滴定法用于碱液中锌、锡的联合测定以及游离碱的测定

目前,EDTA滴定法测定碱液中锌含量已经应用于碱法炼锌工业,碱液中锡含量多采用碘量法测定;而EDTA滴定法联合测定碱液中锌和锡的研究应用较少。试验提出了以EDTA滴定法联合测定碱液中锌和锡,同时利用酸碱滴定法测定碱液中游离碱。EDTA滴定法是以EDTA为螯合剂,络合碱液中锌和锡,以六次甲基四胺作为缓冲液调节溶液pH值至5~6,以氟化铵作为锡的释放剂,将锡解蔽、释放,以硝酸铅反滴即可求出锡含量,同时根据硝酸铅的差值即可求出碱液中锌含量。酸碱滴定采用双指示剂法,用锡含量和消耗盐酸量即可求出游离碱(以氢氧化钠表示)。按照实验方法测定碱液中锌、锡和氢氧化钠,测定结果的相对标准偏差(RSD,n=5)不大于2%;加标回收率为94%~99%。     

DNA chain flexibility and the structure of chromatin nu-bodies

The persistence length of high-molecular-weight, monodisperse-bihelical DNA has been evaluated from low-shear flow birefingence and viscosity data at several temperatures in 2.0 M Nacl neutral pH buffer. At these solvent conditions, both the DNA and histone components of chromatin nu-bodies have structural features similar to those in the intact nucleohistone complex at low ionic strength. The theory of Landau and Lifshitz is used to relate the experimental result to the thermodynamic functions for bending 140 nucleotide pairs of DNA into a plausible model structure: per nu-body, delta Gb=43.8 +/- 5.3 kcal/mole, delta Hb= 45.7 +/- 3.7 kcal/mole, and delta Sb = 6.2 +/- 12.4 entropy units. This bending free energy is comparable to or less than that estimated to be required for a kinked DNA configuration and appears to be well within the range of estimated electrostatic free energies available from DNA-histone interactions in a nu-body assembly.     

EDTA络合滴定法测定铁矿石中钙和镁

在微氨性溶液中,采用硫化钠及铜试剂使铜、铅、锌、铁、钴、镍、锰、铬、镉、铋等生成硫化物沉淀和铜试剂内络盐沉淀与钙镁分离,然后以盐酸羟胺将微量的锰还原成低价消除其干扰,用三乙醇胺和L-半胱氨酸掩蔽残留的其他金属离子。在pH10氨水-氯化铵缓冲溶液中,以酸性铬蓝K-萘酚绿B为指示剂,用EDTA络合滴定法测定钙、镁合量;另在氢氧化钾溶液中,用钙试剂为指示剂,以EDTA络合滴定法测定钙量,用差减法计算镁的含量。该方法对铁矿石标准样品中的钙和镁进行多次测定,结果与认定值相符,相对标准偏差在0.99%~3.4%(n=6)之间,加标回收率在98%~101%之间。     

High expression of V gamma 8 is a shared feature of human gamma delta T cells in the epithelium of the gut and in the inflamed synovial tissue

We have analyzed the V-gene usage in gamma delta T cells of the human gut and joint by using a new mAb (B18) specific for V gamma 8 of human TCR-gamma delta+ T cells. The B18+ population constituted a minor subset of the gamma delta T cells in peripheral blood (PB) of healthy persons (6 +/- 5%) and only 1 of 35 gamma delta T cell clones analyzed was positive. In contrast, the B18+ subset was a dominant gamma delta T cell population among intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) derived from the human intestine (74 +/- 29, p < 0.002), and two of three IEL clones from patients with coeliac disease were B18+. Interestingly, a higher proportion of B18+ gamma delta T cells was found in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (21 +/- 18%, 0.02 < p < 0.05) compared with normal PB. Furthermore, the B18+ subset was more frequent among IL-2-expanded gamma delta T cells (42 +/- 20%) derived from synovial tissue than among IL-2-expanded cells derived from synovial fluid (p < 0.002) and PB from RA patients (p < 0.02) as well as normal PB (p < 0.002). The V-gene usage of 13 gamma delta T cell clones from the synovial fluid of arthritic patients was analyzed. All B18+ clones (n = 7) expressed mRNA for V gamma 8 together with mRNA for V delta 1 (n = 5) or mRNA for V delta 3 (n = 2). None of the B18- clones expressed V gamma 8 (n = 6). We conclude that the gamma delta T cell that expresses V gamma 8, together with mainly V delta 1, is a major gamma delta T cell subset among the IEL of the gut and a highly frequent subset in the synovial tissue of patients with RA. This subset may correspond to the mouse V gamma 7+ IEL, which has a high degree of amino acid sequence homology with the human V gamma 8 protein.     

Study of acid-base equilibria of fleroxacin

The acid-base equilibria of fleroxacin were studied by means of potentiometry and spectrophotometry. It was established that fleroxacin undergoes a complex acid-base equilibrium due to its zwitterionic nature and two proton-binding sites of similar acidity. The stoichiometric equilibrium constants were determined at 25 degrees C and constant ionic strength 0.1 M (NaCl). The acidity constants pK1 = 5.59 +/- 0.01 and pK2 = 8.08 +/- 0.04 were found by potentiometry, and pK1 = 5.61 +/- 0.03 and pK2 = 8.11 +/- 0.06 by spectrophotometry. The distribution diagram of the corresponding ionic species is given.     

2D 1H-NMR conformational study of phosphatidylserine diluted in perdeuterated dodecylphosphocholine micelles. Evidence for a pH-induced conformational transition

The conformation of phosphatidylserine (DMPS) diluted in perdeuterated dodecylphosphocholine micelles (DPC) has been investigated by 1D and 2D proton NMR spectroscopy. Chemical shift pH dependence showed that the pK relative to the serine carboxyl titration (3.4 +/- 0.05) was nearly identical to that measured in bilayers. Chemical shift and NOE data revealed that the phosphatidylserine molecule undergoes a conformational transition upon titration of the serine carboxyl group. The NOE network observed between the different parts of the molecule was sufficiently abundant to allow, in combination with molecular modeling methods, an assessment of the conformational changes. The conformational changes mainly involve the glycerol backbone, which is parallel to the whole molecule, that is, to the layer normal, at low pH and becomes perpendicular to the whole molecule at neutral pH. In both cases, the conformations are remarkably close to those observed for the crystal forms of zwitterionic and negatively charged phospholipids. Two-dimensional proton NMR study of phospholipids, diluted in perdeuterated DPC micelles, appears to be a simple and relevant method to obtain complete and direct information on their conformations in a model membrane-solution interface.     

Thermodynamic analysis of human plasma apolipoprotein C-1: high-temperature unfolding and low-temperature oligomer dissociation

Thermal and chemical unfolding of lipid-free apolipoprotein C-1 (apoC-1), a 6-kDa protein component of very low density and high-density lipoproteins, was analyzed by far-UV CD. In neutral 1 mM Na2HPO4 solutions containing 6-7 micrograms/mL protein, the apoC-1 monomer is approximately 30% alpha-helical at 0-22 degrees C and unfolds reversibly from about 22-80 degrees C with Tm = 51 +/- 3 degrees C and van't Hoff enthalpy delta Hv(Tm) = 19 +/- 3 kcal/mol. The apparent free energy of the monomer stabilization determined from the chemical unfolding at 0 degree C, delta G(0 degree C) = 2.8 +/- 0.8 kcal/mol, decreases by about 1 kcal/mol upon heating to 25 degrees C. A small apparent heat capacity increment suggests the absence of a substantial hydrophobic core for the apoC-1 molecule. At pH 7, increasing apoC-1 concentration above 10 micrograms/mL leads to self-association and formation of additional alpha-helices that unfold upon both heating and cooling from room temperature. The CD data indicate that the high-temperature transition reflects a complete monomer unfolding and the low-temperature transition reflects oligomer dissociation into stable monomers. This suggests the importance of hydrophobic interactions for apoC-1 self-association. Close proximity between the high- and low-temperature transitions and the absence of a plateau in the chemical unfolding curves recorded from oligomeric apoC-1 indicate marginal oligomer stability and suggest that in vivo apoC-1 transfer is mediated via the complexes with other apolipoproteins and/or lipids.     

超声萃取-硝酸汞滴定法测定石英砂岩中氯离子

鉴于硝酸银滴定法测定岩石矿样中氯离子的前处理方式一般采取去离子水浸泡、振荡萃取、过滤等,操作手续冗长,易污染,难过滤的特点,实验研究了超声萃取-硝酸汞滴定法测定石英砂岩中氯离子的方法。即通过对国家标准岩石样品GBW07106进行超声萃取、静置、然后离心分离,用硝酸汞滴定法测定离心液中的氯离子含量,进而计算出石英砂岩中的氯含量。通过试验确定了对样品进行超声萃取2h、以硫酸铝钾为萃取剂、萃取时间为30min和离心分离时间为10min的前处理方案。对大于10mg/L铬酸盐和大于140mg/L Fe³⁺对Cl^-测定的干扰,可加入2mL 100g/L对苯二酚溶液消除;对大于10mg/L硫化物和亚硫酸盐的干扰,可先用氢氧化钠调节溶液至弱碱性,然后加入1mL 30%过氧化氢摇匀,再加热除去剩余过氧化氢的方法消除其对Cl^-测定的干扰。采用实验方法对石英砂岩进行测定,结果的相对标准偏差(RSD,n=5)为5.5%和6.2%,回收率为97%~103%。     

电位滴定法测定Ruthner法盐酸再生工艺流程酸洗液中游离盐酸浓度

采用Ruthner法盐酸再生工艺对酸洗液进行再生处理时,需要及时测定其游离盐酸浓度。当采用通过电位滴定法测定酸洗液中游离H⁺浓度得到游离盐酸浓度的方法时,酸洗液中Fe²⁺和Fe³⁺的存在会干扰测定。实验利用Ca-CaY(0.1mol/L EDTA-0.150mol/L CaCl₂溶液)作为掩蔽剂消除了酸洗液中大量Fe²⁺和少量Fe³⁺的干扰,实现了电位滴定法对Ruthner法盐酸再生工艺流程酸洗液中游离盐酸浓度的测定。试验结果表明,Ca-CaY掩蔽剂的加入不仅对游离酸的测定无影响,且可使pH值的突跃范围变窄;在采用电位滴定法时,设定终点判断阈值为10、终点判断范围pH=7~10、终点识别为最大,可避免pH=6附近的突跃对终点的影响从而获得准确的滴定终点。优化后确定Ca-CaY掩蔽剂用量为10mL。从Ruthner法盐酸再生工艺不同流程中各取1个酸洗液样品,按实验方法测定游离盐酸浓度,并采用间接法进行方法对比。结果表明,采用t检验验证,t为0.51~1.18,小于t_(0.05,9)=2.26,说明实验方法和间接法测定结果无系统差。实验方法测定结果的相对标准偏差(RSD,n=10)在1.5%~2.6%之间。选取Ruthner法盐酸再生工艺流程中的不同酸洗液样品,按照实验方法进行测定,并加入一定量0.1mol/L盐酸标准滴定溶液进行加标回收试验,回收率在96%~103%之间。     

Perioperative pharmacodynamics of acetaminophen analgesia in children

The nitrogenase iron (Fe) protein binds two molecules of MgATP or MgADP, which results in protein conformational changes that are important for subsequent steps of the nitrogenase reaction mechanism. In the present work, isothermal titration calorimetry has been used to deconvolute the apparent binding constants (K'a1 and K'a2) and the thermodynamic terms (delta H' degree and delta S' degree) for each of the two binding events of MgATP or MgADP to either the reduced or oxidized states of the Fe protein from Azotobacter vinelandii. The Fe protein was found to bind two nucleotides with positive cooperativity and the oxidation state of the [4Fe-4S] cluster of the Fe protein was found to influence the affinity for binding nucleotides, with the oxidized ([4Fe-4S]2+) state having up to a 15-fold higher affinity for nucleotides when compared to the reduced ([4Fe-4S]1+) state. The first nucleotide binding reaction was found to be driven by a large favorable entropy change (delta S' degree = 10-21 cal mol-1 K-1), with a less favorable or unfavorable enthalpy change (delta H' degree = +1.5 to -3.3 kcal mol-1). In contrast, the second nucleotide binding reaction was found to be driven by a favorable change in enthalpy (delta H' degree = -3.1 to -13.0 kcal mol-1), with generally less favorable entropy changes. A plot of the associated enthalpy (-delta H' degree) and entropy terms (-T delta S' degree) for each nucleotide and protein binding reaction revealed a linear relationship with a slope of 1.12, consistent with strong enthalpy-entropy compensation. These results indicate that the binding of the first nucleotide to the nitrogenase Fe protein results in structural changes accompanied by the reorganization of bound water molecules, whereas the second nucleotide binding reaction appears to result in much smaller structural changes and is probably largely driven by bonding interactions. Evidence is presented that the total free energy change (delta G' degree) derived from the binding of two nucleotides to the Fe protein accounts for the total change in the midpoint potential of the [4Fe-4S] cluster.     

铁氰化钾电位滴定法测定粗制氢氧化钴中钴

锰会干扰电位滴定法对钴的测定,而粗制氢氧化钴中锰含量较高(质量分数达8%),因此,将电位滴定法应用于测定粗制氢氧化钴中钴时,需要考虑锰的干扰。实验通过对HG/T4506—2013工业氢氧化钴中钴标准检测方法的前处理阶段做出改进,用盐酸溶解样品后,在含磷酸的溶液中用高氯酸将锰(II)氧化为锰(III),再用氟化氢铵络合掩蔽锰(III)从而消除了锰的干扰。在氨性环境中,用过量的铁氰化钾将钴(II)铵络离子氧化成钴(III)铵络离子,再用钴标准滴定溶液返滴定过量的铁氰化钾,最终建立了电位滴定法测定粗制氢氧化钴中钴的方法。参照粗制氢氧化钴中锰与钴的质量比,配制锰与钴的质量比在13.7%~52.0%范围内的粗制氢氧化钴模拟样品,按照实验方法进行测定,钴的回收率在99%~101%之间,这说明锰对钴测定的干扰可忽略。将方法应用于粗制氢氧化钴的检测,相对标准偏差(RSD,n=15)为0.19%~0.26%,加标回收率为99%~104%。采用实验方法测定粗制氢氧化钴实际样品,测得结果与电位滴定法-电感耦合等离子原子发射光谱法相结合所测得的结果基本一致。     

Salt effects on ligand-DNA binding. Minor groove binding antibiotics

Salt dependent electrostatic effects play a central role in intermolecular interactions involving nucleic acids. In this paper, the finite-difference solution to the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann (NLPB) equation is used to evaluate the salt dependent contribution to the electrostatic binding free energy of the minor groove binding antibiotics DAPI, Hoechst 33258 and netropsin to DNA using detailed molecular structures of the complexes. For each of these systems, a treatment based on the NLPB equation accurately describes the variation of the experimentally observed binding constant with bulk salt concentration. A solvation formalism is developed in which salt effects are described in terms of three free energy contributions: the electrostatic ion-molecule interaction free energy, delta delta G degrees im; the electrostatic ion-ion interaction free energy, delta delta G degrees ii; and the entropic ion organization free energy, delta delta G degrees org. The electrostatic terms, delta delta G degrees im and delta delta G degrees ii, have both enthalpic and entropic components, while the term delta delta G degrees org is purely a cratic entropy. Each of these terms depends significantly on salt dependent changes in the counterion and coion concentrations around the DNA. In each of the systems studied, univalent ions substantially destabilize charged ligand-DNA complexes at physiological salt concentrations. This effect involves a salt dependent redistribution of counterions near the DNA. The free energy associated with the redistribution of counterions upon binding is dominated by the unfavorable change in the electrostatic ion-molecule interactions, delta delta G degrees im, rather than the change in the cratic entropy of ion organization, delta delta G degrees org. In addition, the observed slope of the salt dependence of the free energy is determined by electrostatic ion-molecule and ion-ion interactions as well as the cratic entropy of ion release. These findings are in contrast to models in which the cratic entropy of counterion release drives binding.     

Analysis of electrostatic interactions and their relationship to conformation and stability of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor

The modified Tanford-Kirkwood electrostatic theory has been employed to evaluate pK values for all charge sites in the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI). 13C NMR titration data were obtained for all titrating groups except arginine residues in BPTI at nearly constant ionic strength in 0.1 M NaCl, at 41 degrees C. The chemical shifts of 46 resonances were found to be sensitive to pH. The pK values of these titrating resonances compared well with those computed by the modified Tanford-Kirkwood electrostatic theory. A conformational change involving the NH2- and COOH-terminal and nearby residues is shown to be partly electrostatically driven by the formation of a salt bridge between the alpha-amino and alpha-carboxyl groups at mid-pH values. The computed total electrostatic free energy of the molecule is found to be stabilizing at neutral pH despite the substantial net positive charge borne by the protein under such conditions.