Instantaneous interfacial heat fluxes during the 4 to 8 m/min casting of carbon steels in a twin-roll caster

Instantaneous heat fluxes between the roll and the solidifying metal were evaluated in a pilot twinroll caster, producing strips of low-carbon steels. This evaluation was based on the solution of an inverse heat-transfer problem, using temperature readings of thermocouples inserted at various locations in the roll sleeve. The response times of the thermocouples were determined and used to correct measured temperatures. The variation of the instantaneous heat fluxes with time of contact between the roll and the melt presented two distinct types of behavior, one exhibiting a single peak and other a double peak, depending on the casting conditions. These different patterns were interpreted in terms of the variation of the metallostatic pressure, solidification shrinkage, thermal expansion of the rolls, and characteristics of the solid shell. Predictions of the amounts of heat extracted by the roll and secondary dendrite arm spacings (SDAS) in the strips, based on the calculated heat fluxes, were in reasonable agreement with experimental values. This also demonstrated that the level of correction applied to the thermocouple readings was appropriate.     

Twin Roll Casting of Steel Strip ‐ Experiments and Model Considerations on Strip Spottiness

Thin strip casting of steel through a twin‐roll caster demands the production of a perfectly homogeneous strip. This requirement is often not fulfilled due to non‐uniform heat contact between the solidifying strip and the rolls in the pool, which leads to temperature inhomogeneities visible at the strip behind the rolls (spottiness). The effect of spottiness is described from experimental observations in terms of contrast between dark and hot spots and of the mean diameter of the hot spots. The contrast is found to depend on roll material, surface roughness and roll velocity. A general dependence on the temperature difference between melt and rolls is observed. Calculations of heat transfer in the liquid and solid pool explain the hot‐dark‐temperature differences. The spottiness visible on the strip after leaving the rolls is initiated in the liquid pool, but it is enlarged by rolling contact differences in the solid pool. A model consideration based on thermally caused bending of the solidified material layers leads to a good coincidence with experimental data of the heat transfer coefficient at hot spots.     

A numerical and experimental study of the solidification rate in a twin-belt caster

A numerical and experimental study was carried out to investigate the solidification process in a twin-belt (Hazelett) caster. The numerical model considers a generalized energy equation that is valid for the solid, liquid, and mushy zones in the cast. Ak-ε turbulence model is used to calculate the turbulent viscosity in the melt pool. The process variables considered are the belt speed, strip thickness, nozzle width, and heat removal rates at the belt-cast interface. From the computed flow and temperature fields, the local cooling rates in the cast and trajectories of inclusions were computed. The cooling rate calculations were used to predict the dendrite arm spacing in the cast. The inclusion trajectories agree with earlier findings on the distribution of inclusion particles for near horizontally cast surfaces. This article also reports the results of an experimental study of the measurement of heat flux values at the belt-cast interface during the solidification of steel and aluminum on a water-cooled surface. High heat fluxes encountered during the solidification process warranted the use of a custom-made heat flux gage. The heat flux data for the belt surface were used as a boundary condition for the numerical model. Objectives of the measurements also included obtaining an estimate of the heat-transfer coefficient distribution at the water-cooled side of the caster belt. Y.G. KIM, formerly Graduate Student, Materials Engineering Department, Drexel University.     

Strip formation and process stability in twin roll strip casting

Process stability in the thin strip casting process of steel has been investigated with a laboratory pilot caster. Depending on the steel grade and the process parameters irregular process states could be observed. It has been proved experimentally that the observed behaviour is not caused by the regulation system. Investigations of microsections on the cast strips have shown evidence of periodical changes in heat flux during solidification and strip formation as the reason for observed oscillating process variables. Similar to conventional flat rolling forward and backward slip between strip and casting rolls during the joining of the shells can occur. Under certain combinations the process parameters and the cast material a backward‐slip can lead to local lift‐offs of the solidified shells. This circumstance significantly disturbs the heat flux and consequently the solidification, even periodically.     

Modelling of Melt Flow and Solidification in the Twin‐Roll Strip Casting Process

A three‐dimensional mathematical model has been developed to simulate turbulent fluid flow, heat transfer and solidification in the pool of a twin‐roll strip caster. A Darcy‐porosity approach was used to study the fluid flow within the mushy solidification zone in the pool. The effect of the heat transfer coefficient and permeability constant on the flow and solidification was also predicted. It was shown that an even flow and temperature distribution of the pool can be obtained by using a suitable feeding system. The heat transfer between the rolls and the solidifying metal has a big influence on the location of the solidification end point. The permeability of the mushy zone is a key factor which affects the flow and solidification in the twin‐roll strip casting process.     

The thermal and metallurgical state of steel strip during hot rolling: Part I. Characterization of heat transfer

A technique using intrinsic thermocouples was developed to monitor the thermal response of steel samples during hot rolling. A series of hot-rolling tests was conducted with the thermocoupleinstrumented samples on CANME’s pilot mill to simulate individual stands of Stelco’s Lake Erie Works hot-strip mill. A mathematical model of heat transfer in the roll bite has been employed to back calculate the roll/strip interface heat-transfer coefficients for lubricated and unlubricated conditions. The influence of reduction, rolling speed, and prerolling on roll-strip heat transfer has also been examined. For unlubricated rolling tests, the heat-transfer coefficient in the roll bite increased with time, reaching a steady-state value of 57 kW/m² °C. The corresponding number for the lubricated tests was 31 kW/m² °C. The observed variation in the interface heat-transfer coefficient with increasing strain and interface pressure points to a strong dependence on the real area of contact between the strip and rolls. Therefore, it appears that heat transfer between the two surfaces occurs primarily by conduction across asperity contacts. The high heat-transfer coefficients attained at the roll/strip interface promote chilling of the strip to a depth of approximately one-eighth of the thickness. To validate the overall heattransfer model, predicted surface temperatures of the strip have been compared with interstand temperature measurements obtained on the industrial mill using pyrometers. Formerly Graduate Student, The Centre for Metallurgical Process Engineering, The University of British Columbia     

工艺因素对铝双辊铸轧凝固过程的影响

利用铝双辊铸轧过程传热数学模型,系统分析了辊套材料、浇注温度等工艺因素对铝双辊铸轧过程凝固速率的影响及进一步提高铸轧机生产能力的途径,建立了钢和铜合金2种辊套材料的凝固壳厚度随时间变化的计算公式。     

Heat Flux Density and Heat Transfer Coefficient between Steel Melt and Metallic Substrates

The solidification of low carbon (LC) steels on metallic substrates was investigated with a twin roll caster and a model mould. The substrate materials were steel, Ni, and two copper alloys, which are typical for the industrial construction of moulds. Heat flux density, heat transfer coefficient, growth rate, and cooling rate were evaluated.     

Transient thermal model of the continuous single-wheel thin-strip casting process

A transient heat-transfer model (STRIP1D) has been developed to simulate the single-roll continuous strip-casting process. The model predicts temperature in the solidifying strip coupled with heat transfer in the rotating wheel, using an explicit finite difference procedure. The model has been calibrated using strip thickness data from a test caster at ARMCO Inc. (Middletown, OH) and verified with a range of other available measurements. The strip/wheel interface contact resistance and heat transfer were investigated in particular, and an empirical formula to calculate this heat-transfer coefficient as a function of contact time was obtained. Wheel temperature and final strip thickness are investigated as a function of casting speed, liquid steel pool depth, superheat, coatings on the wheel hot surface, strip detachment point, wheel wall thickness, and wheel material.     

Assessment of Heat Transfer During Solidification of Al–22% Si Alloy by Inverse Analysis and Surface Roughness Based Predictive Model

Heat flux transients were estimated during unidirectional downward solidification of Al?C22% Si alloy against copper, die steel and stainless steel chills. The chill instrumented with thermocouples was brought into contact with the liquid metal so as to avoid the effect of convection associated with the pouring of liquid metal. Heat flux transients were estimated by solving the inverse heat conduction problem. Higher thermal conductivity of chill material resulted in increased peak heat flux at the metal/chill interface. Peak heat flux decreased when 100???m thick alumina coating was applied on the chill surface. The lower thermal conductivity of alumina based coating and the presence of additional thermal resistance decreases the interfacial heat transfer. For uncoated chills, the ratio of the surface roughness (R_a) of the casting to chill decreased from 6.5 to 0.5 with decrease in the thermal conductivity of the chill material. However when coating was applied on the chill, the surface roughness ratio was nearly constant at about 0.2 for all chill materials. The measured roughness data was used in a sum surface roughness model to estimate the heat transfer coefficient. The results of the model are in reasonable agreement with experimentally determined heat-transfer coefficients for coated chills.     

Computational fluid dynamics applied to twin-roll casting

Near-net-shape casting technology is one of the most important research areas in the iron and steel industry today. Driving forces for the development of this technology include a reduction in the number of operations needed for conventionally produced strip. This is especially true of hot rolling operations. The consequent reduction in investment costs, when considering new industrial facilities, makes near-net-shape casting operations extremely attractive from a commercial standpoint.Various processes for near-net-shape casting of steel are currently being developed around the world. Of these processes, the twin-roll casting machines represent a major area of concentration. We believe that one of the main issues concerning the design of twin-roll casters is the metal delivery system and its effects on the homogeneity of solid shell formation, segregation and surface quality.In the present work, computational fluid dynamics has been used to study different metal delivery systems for twin-roll casting. The METFLO code has been adapted to simulate three dimensional turbulent fluid flow, heat transfer and solidification in this type of machine. The enthalpy-porosity technique was used to couple fluid flow and solidification phenomena. Two configurations for metal delivery system have been studied to date, one is a conventional tubular nozzle with horizontal outlets in the directions of the side dams. The other is a slot nozzle with a vertical inlet stream.These simulations have been applied to a pilot caster being studied in Canada, with a roll radius of 0.30 m, producing steel strips with thicknesses ranging from 4 to 7 mm, at relatively low roll speeds ranging between 4 and 12 m⧹min. Different positions and penetrations of the nozzles in the liquid pool have also been analysed. It has been shown that the tubular nozzle leads to the formation of a solid shell that is thicker at the centre of the caster. The slot nozzle gives a more uniform thickness of the solid shell along the roll width. In both configurations, a thicker solid shell is formed close to the roll edges, due to the presence of the side dams.It has also been demonstrated that the slot nozzle gives lower levels of turbulence at the free surface, which can have positive effects on the product quality.     

Analysis of thin-slab casting by the compact-strip process: Part I. Heat extraction and solidification

This article reports on an extensive experimental and modeling study undertaken to elucidate the thermal evolution of thin slabs during their passage through the mold and secondary cooling system of a compact-strip process (CSP) caster. In industrial trials covering a wide range of casting conditions, temperature measurements were carried out at (1) the copper plates of an operating mold and (2) the stainless steel frame of an operating grid. Separately, water-flux and heat-flux distributions generated by the several water and air-mist sprays produced by the different nozzles used in the process were determined in the laboratory. The analysis of these pieces of information, together with a detailed consideration of the geometry of the mold and the arrangement of the rolls and spray nozzles, were used to establish appropriate boundary conditions for a two-dimensional, curvilinear-coordinate, unsteady-state heat-conduction model for predicting the solidification rate of thin slabs. The predicted slab surface temperatures show very good agreement with corresponding measured values taken in plant tests at several locations along and across the secondary cooling system. The validation trials involved a wide range of low- and medium-carbon steel grades, casting speeds, slab widths, and secondary cooling strategies. The second part of this article combines the solidification model with a creep model of the shell to yield useful information about design parameters and casting conditions associated with undesirable bulging behavior of the slab after the last support roll, which causes stoppage of the process by slab clogging at the pinch rolls.     

Analysis and prevention of microcracking phenomenon occurring during strip casting of an AISI 304 stainless steel

This study was concerned with the effects of microstructural parameters on the microcracking phenomenon occurring during strip casting of an AISI 304 stainless steel. Detailed microstructural analyses of the microcracked regions showed that microcracks were formed mainly along tortoise-shell-shaped depressions and that their number and size were considerably reduced when strip casting was done right after a shot-blasting or pickling treatment of the casting roll surface. This microcracking phenomenon was closely related to the formation of a black oxide layer, which was mainly composed of manganese-rich oxides, on the roll surface. The black oxide layer acted as a barrier of thermal transfer between the rolls and melt, led to an increased gas gap and inhomogeneous solidification of cast strips, and, thus, played a role in forming both tortoise-shell—shaped depressions and microcracks on the strip surface. The installation of brush rolls behind the casting rolls was suggested as a method to prevent microcracks, because the brush rolls could continuously scrape off the black oxide layer affixed on the roll surface during strip casting.     

Control of heat transfer and growth uniformity of solidifying copper shells through substrate temperature

To determine the optimal roll temperature in a twin-roll copper-strip caster, copper blocks preheated between 25 °C and 350 °C were immersed in a bath of molten copper for 0.5 seconds. A significant increase in the contact heat-transfer coefficient at the substrate-shell interface was obtained when the substrates were heated above 200 °C and the gain in the solidified shell thickness was 20 pct. The shell growth was also approximately 35 pct more uniform at a high substrate temperature, and micrographic examination showed the dendritic structure to be finer. The contact heat-transfer coefficient was decomposed into two constituents, one for the substrate and the other for the shell. The former was found to be the limiting factor in heat transfer.     

Analysis and prevention of cracking during strip casting of AISI 304 stainless steel

In this study, a microstructural investigation was conducted on the cracking phenomenon occurring during strip casting of an AISI 304 stainless steel. Detailed microstructural analyses of the cracked regions showed that most of the cracks were deep, sharp, and parallel to the casting direction. They initiated at the tip of dendrites and propagated along the segregated liquid films between primary dendrites, indicating that they were typical solidification cracks. This cracking phenomenon was closely related to the inhomogeneous solidification of cast strips, represented by depressions, i.e., uneven and somewhat concave areas on the strip surface. The depressions, which were unavoidable in flat rolls due to the presence of a gas gap between the roll and the cast strip, were finely and evenly distributed over the cast strip surface by intentionally providing homogeneous roughness on the roll surface; then, the number and size of cracks were considerably reduced. In addition, the nitrogen gas atmosphere, which retained high solubility in the melt during cooling and good wettability with the roll surface, was successfully used to prevent cracking, because the thickness of the gas gap was minimized.     

辊子错位对铸坯鼓肚变形的影响

 由于加工、安装、变形与磨损等原因,连铸机辊列中的辊子会偏离设计位置而产生错位,这对铸坯鼓肚变形产生较大影响。基于高温铸坯黏弹塑性本构方程,建立两辊间距内的铸坯坯壳动态鼓肚数学模型,并利用模型计算试验铸机的铸坯坯壳鼓肚曲线,依照实测数据验证了模型的有效性。根据奥钢联工业连铸机的设备及工艺参数,计算铸机不同扇形段内铸坯坯壳在不同辊子错位量情况下的鼓肚变形,并讨论在辊子发生错位的情况下辊间距对铸坯坯壳固液交界面处最大应变的影响,并给出铸机辊间距的确定方法。     

六辊冷连轧机中间辊横移过程辊间接触压力分析

 为了使轧机板形控制性能适应带钢规格材质变化,用于连续轧制高档冷轧薄带钢的六辊冷连轧机大都采取中间辊可横移技术。但是,中间辊横移必定使辊间接触压力分布更不均匀,导致出现接触压力尖峰。在中间辊横移过程中,辊间接触压力和横移阻力都会随横移速度的变化而发生改变,并可能导致辊间接触压力在轧辊端部形成更大的压力尖峰,从而造成轧辊磨损不均匀并缩短轧辊的使用周期。通过建立有限元仿真模型,以仿真模拟获得中间辊横移过程中辊间接触压力的变化规律后,优化设计轧辊辊形,并且提出使用非对称弯辊力的方法,实现了辊间接触压力的分布均匀化,降低了辊间接触压力尖峰值,并延长了轧辊的使用寿命。     

拉伸弯曲矫直过程中带钢对弯曲辊包角的理论计算

在带钢的拉伸弯曲矫直变形过程中,包角的精确计算对拉伸矫直机延伸率的精确控制至关重要.在不考虑带钢抗弯力矩的影响时,带钢在各个辊上的理论包角比较容易计算,研究了对称模型包角、非对称模型包角、带钢厚度对包角的影响.在确定的设备和带钢厚度时,带钢对弯曲辊的包角取决于其压下量.     

Effects of interface resistance on heat transfer in steel cold rolling

The thermal contact resistance created in the bite region during rolling depends on surface roughness, contact pressure, and the coolant, lubricant or oxide scale between the roll and strip. Therefore, to estimate temperatures of the roll and the strip accurately, the interface resistance in the contact region should be considered when modelling. The purpose of this study is to more effectively analyze the thermal behaviour of the steel rolling process by considering the interface resistance of the roll and strip in the contact region. Since the interface is very thin in comparison with its length, it is modelled as one-dimensional heat transfer with friction heat generated along the interface. For the estimation of the thermal contact resistance, different surface situations of cold rolling are considered. The finite element method is adopted to evaluate the deformation and friction power dissipated in the rolls and strip during rolling process. Roll and strip thermal properties, such as thermal conductivity and specific heat, are considered to be temperature dependent during the calculation.     

Development of laboratory scale thin strip caster and investigation of direct casting of AISI 304 stainless steel

Abstract

An unequal diameter (1 : 3), two roll thin strip casting machine has been designed and fabricated for investigation of the direct casting of thin strip on a laboratory scale. The system consists of a preheatable shallow tundish with online heating facility, water cooled rotating rolls (chill and auxiliary) for solidification of the liquid metal, and a stripper assembly. The machine has a variable speed. Roll gap setting and roll pressure adjustment are two important features of the machine. It is also possible to vary the placement angle of the auxiliary roll with respect to the chill roll. A heat transfer model was developed, based on experimental casting results. Experiments were conducted using AISI 304 grade stainless steel. Up to 100 kg of steel was cast without interruption into strips of widths 100 and 200 mm and thickness varying between 1 and 2 mm. Some of the process parameters affecting the quality of the strip were identified.