A robust power control strategy to enhance LVRT capability of grid‐connected DFIG‐based wind energy systems

This paper presents a new robust and effective control strategy to mitigate symmetrical voltage dips in a grid‐connected doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind energy conversion system without any additional hardware in the system. The aim is to control the power transmitted to the grid so as to keep the electrical and mechanical quantities above their threshold protection values during a voltage dip transient. To achieve this, the references of the powers are readjusted to adapt the wind energy conversion system to the fault conditions. Robust control strategies, combining the merits of sliding mode theory and fuzzy logic, are then proposed in this paper. These controllers are derived from the dynamic model of the DFIG considering the variations in the stator flux generated by the voltage drop. This approach is found to yield better performance than other control design methods which assume the flux in the stator to remain constant in amplitude. This control scheme is compliant with the fault‐ride‐through grid codes which require the wind turbine generator to remain connected during voltage dips. A series of simulation scenarios are carried out on a 3‐MW wind turbine system to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control schemes under voltage dips and parameter uncertainty conditions.     

Application of energy capacitor system to wind power generation

In this paper, it is reported that energy capacitor system (ECS), which combines power electronic devices and electric double‐layer capacitor, can significantly decrease voltage and power fluctuations of grid‐connected fixed‐speed wind generator. The proper selection of wind farm output power reference is still a problem for smoothing the wind farm output power. This paper proposes exponential moving average to generate the reference output power of a grid‐connected wind farm. The objective of the control system is to follow the line power reference by absorbing or providing real power to or from the ECS. Moreover, the necessary reactive power can also be supplied to keep the wind farm terminal voltage at the desired reference level. Real wind speed data were used in the simulation analyses, which validate the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy. Simulation results clearly show that our proposed ECS can be suitable for wind power application. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of reactive power strategies in HVDC‐connected wind power plant clusters

Offshore wind power plants (WPPs) built near each other but far from shore usually connect to the main grid by a common high‐voltage DC (HVDC) transmission system. In the resulting decoupled offshore grid, the wind turbine converters and the high‐voltage DC voltage‐source converter share the ability to inject or absorb reactive power. The overall reactive power control dispatch influences the power flows in the grid and hence the associated power losses. This paper evaluates the respective power losses in HVDC‐connected WPP clusters when applying 5 different reactive power control strategies. The case study is made for a 1.2‐GW–rated cluster comprising 3 WPP and is implemented in a combined load flow and converter loss model. A large set of feasible operating points for the system is analyzed for each strategy. The results show that a selection of simulations with equal wind speeds is sufficient for the annual energy production comparison. It is found that the continuous operation of the WPPs with unity power factor has a superior performance with low communication requirements compared with the other conventional strategies. The optimization‐based strategy, which is developed in this article, allows a further reduction of losses mainly because of the higher offshore grid voltage level imposed by the high‐voltage DC voltage‐source converter. Reactive power control in HVDC‐connected WPP clusters change significantly the overall power losses of the system, which depend rather on the total sum of the injected active power than on the variance of wind speeds inside the cluster.     

有载调压变压器、电容器组和STATCOM的协调控制研究

针对变电站电压无功控制中,存在的变压器分接头和电容器组投切频繁以及电容器投切对系统电压造成一定的冲击问题,将静止同步补偿器（STATCOM）用于变电站电压/无功调节控制中,提出了离散设备优先动作,连续设备精细调节的控制策略,协调有载调压变压器分接头、电容器组与STATCOM之间的运行,在电压发生波动时,投入STATCOM实现对电压快速和平滑的调节;在正常运行时,STATCOM有足够的裕量。在修正后的IEEE-9系统中对提出的的控制策略进行仿真分析,结果表明,提出的协调控制策略能够有效地减少变压器分接头和电容器的投切次数,减小电容器投切时对系统电压造成的冲击。     

含冲击负荷的配电网动态无功补偿

对于含冲击负荷的配电网,由于其负荷波动性大,导致无功补偿较为困难,对此提出了综合动态无功补偿法,即利用无功裕度的方法确定最佳补偿点,以在线监测补偿点电压作为约束条件控制投切电容器,动态调整补偿容量。对于冲击负荷引起的电压降落,采取就地补偿电容器的方式,同时在电容器上串联一个小容量电抗器,以抑制并联电容器对谐波的放大作用,减小负荷冲击对电网的影响。实例应用结果表明,该方法不仅稳步提升了线路和冲击负荷点电压,且有效保证了电网的电压质量。     

Review of international grid codes for wind power integration: Diversity,technology and a case for global standard

This paper presents a comprehensive study on the latest grid code regulations enforced by transmission system operators on large wind power plants (WPPs). First, the most common requirements included in the majority of international grid codes are compared; namely, low and high voltage ride-through capabilities, active and reactive power responses during and after faults, extended range of voltage–frequency variations, active power (frequency) control facility, and reactive power (voltage) regulation support. The paper also presents a discussion on the global harmonization of international grid codes as well as future trends expected in the regulations. Finally, the evolution of different wind generator technologies to fulfill various grid code requirements is investigated. The presented study will assist system operators to establish their connection requirements for the first time or to compare their existing regulations with other operators. It also enables wind turbine manufacturers and wind farm developers to obtain a more precise understanding from the latest international requirements imposed on modern wind farms.     

Modeling and analysis of reactive power in grid‐connected onshore and offshore DFIG‐based wind farms

The analysis of reactive power for offshore and onshore wind farms connected to the grid through high‐voltage alternating‐current transmission systems is considered in this paper. The considered wind farm is made up with doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs). Modeling and improved analysis of the effective reactive power capability of DFIGs are provided. Particularly, the optimal power‐tracking constraints and other operational variables are considered in the modeling and analysis of the DFIG reactive power capability. Reactive power requirements for both overhead and cable transmission systems are modeled and compared with each other as well as with the reactive power capability of the wind farms. Possibility of unity power factor operation suggested by the German Electricity Association (VDEW) is investigated for both types of installations. Aggregate reactive power demands on both wind farms are assessed such that the bus voltages remain within an acceptable bandwidth considering various operational limits. The reactive power settings for both types of wind farm installations are determined. In addition, the minimum capacity and reactive power settings for reactive power compensation required for cable‐based installations are determined. Several numerical examples are given to illustrate the reactive power characteristics and capability of DFIGs, performance of transmission lines and reactive power analysis for DFIG‐based grid‐connected wind farms. A summary of the main outcomes of the work presented in this paper is provided in the conclusions section. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

用于风电场并网中无功电压调节的UPFC仿真分析

以笼式异步电机为基础的风力发电机组并网运行时需要吸收大量无功功率,如果不能提供充分的无功补偿,会导致风电场电压跌落,部分风机脱离,系统无法正常运行。而统一潮流控制器（UPFC）具有控制线路潮流,提高电网稳定的作用,可以应用于风电并网之中。针对上述问题,在某一风场内的变风速条件下,用软件MATLAB/simu link建立基于恒速恒频异步发电机的风电机组并网模型并仿真,通过分析仿真结果,对比应用UPFC进行无功补偿前后风电场及电网的运行状态变化,证明UPFC可以调节带有风电场的系统无功功率和电压,维持电网稳定运行。     

Field tests of wind turbines submitted to real voltage dips under the new Spanish grid code requirements

This paper adds the new Spanish grid code to the previously published works about the comparison of international regulations for connection of wind turbines to the network. All the electrical magnitudes—currents and active and reactive power—regulated in the Spanish grid code are studied when the wind turbines are submitted to real voltage dips. Because grid codes and, specifically, the Spanish grid code do not fix the reactive power definition to be applied, four definitions commonly used have also been studied. Taking advantage of the voltage dips field tests carried out to the Gamesa G80 wind turbines, the results obtained for two representative voltage dip tests are presented: a three‐phase and a phase‐to‐phase voltage dip. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

考虑变压器损耗的配电网无功优化研究

针对传统配电网无功优化未考虑变压器损耗的缺陷,提出了考虑变压器损耗的配电网无功优化模型,优化措施包括电容器无功补偿、变压器有载调压等,通过差分进化算法对改进的IEEE 33节点系统进行仿真计算,研究了不同负荷水平情况下配电系统无功优化结果,并与传统无功优化结果进行对比分析。结果表明,系统轻载情况下,考虑变压器损耗对于配电网无功优化尤为必要,可使配电网无功优化方案更加合理全面。     

Control Algorithm for Coordinated Reactive Power Compensation in a Wind Park

The penetration level of wind energy is continuously growing, and it is especially relevant in European countries such as Denmark, Germany, and Spain. For this reason, grid codes in different countries have been recently revised, or are now under revision in order to integrate this energy in the network taking into account the security of supply. This paper is related to reactive compensation, which is one aspect usually included in these codes. On the other hand, a great number of installed wind parks are formed by fixed speed wind turbines equipped with induction generators. The typical scheme for reactive compensation in this kind of wind parks is based on capacitor banks locally controlled in each machine. This configuration makes very difficult to follow the requirements of the new grid codes. To overcome this problem, a configuration with a central controller that coordinates the actuation over all the capacitor steps in the wind park is proposed in this paper. A central controller algorithm that is based on a dynamic programming is presented and evaluated by means of simulation. At this time, the proposed scheme has been installed at the Sotavento Experimental Wind Park (Spain) and it is currently being tested.      

10 kV集合式并联电容器的选择与应用

介绍了新疆哈密地区巴里坤县110kV变电所安装的集合式并联电容器成套装置,对无功补偿容量的确定、集合式并联电容器及其配套设备型式的选择作了说明,以及运行过程中可能出现的涌流、过电压、电网谐波放大问题进行了分析,对变电站的无功补偿装置提出建议：按照变电站的无功补偿装置,仅补偿站内无功损耗的原则来确定变电站无功补偿容量;采用可调容集合式并联电容器配套的高压可调容智能综合控制器,该装置可根据变电站的功率因数和电压水平来调节有载调压变压器分接头和自动投切集合式并联电容器。     

Development of a comprehensive MPPT for grid‐connected wind turbine driven PMSG

This paper proposes a comprehensive MPPT method by which extraction of maximum power from wind turbine and its subsequent transfer through various power stages and final delivery to the connected grid are realized. In the proposed system, the operation of the wind turbine at its maximum efficiency point is maintained by control of grid‐tied inverter such that the shaft speed of the generator is set to result the desired optimum tip speed ratio of the turbine. The proposed comprehensive MPPT estimates the required DC link voltage for each wind speed using a unified system model, uses a loss factor to account for the system losses, and then controls the inverter to push the WT extracted maximum power into the grid. The comprehensive MPPT is developed and is validated in MATLAB/Simulink platform in a wide range of operating wind speed. The results ascertain that the wind turbine is made to operate at its maximum efficiency point for all wind speeds below the rated one.     

Meeting modern grid codes with large direct‐drive permanent magnet generator‐based wind turbines—low‐voltage ride‐through

Ambitious offshore wind energy targets continue to drive technological innovation, with the latest direct‐drive permanent magnet generator‐based wind turbines promising higher efficiency and availability. However, these machines have fixed rotor flux, provided by the magnets, which means that their voltage rises with speed. Further, high machine stator reactance leads to significant magnetic energy storage in the stator windings. Both these aspects provide new challenges for the power converter when designing to meet modern low‐voltage ride‐through requirements. This paper therefore proposes a novel control strategy, using a minimally rated chopper and dynamic brake resistor (DBR) integrated with the wind turbine's power converter, to help these systems to meet the demands of modern grid codes. This control method may allow the chopper and DBR to be rated at only 40% of a fully rated version. Despite only partially rating the DBR system, the control method minimizes the torsional oscillations in the drive train, thereby protecting the mechanical system. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A utility interactive wind energy conversion scheme with anasynchronous DC link using a supplementary control loop

The paper presents modelling, simulation and experimental verification of a utility interactive wind energy conversion scheme with an asynchronous link comprised of a diode bridge rectifier and a line commutated inverter. The control objective is to track and extract maximum power from the wind energy system and transfer this power to the electric utility. This is achieved by controlling the firing delay angle of the inverter. Since the diode bridge rectifier has no control on the DC link voltage, a supplementary control loop is used to limit the voltage within a preset voltage threshold. The proposed scheme for regulating the flow of power through the DC link ensures reduced reactive power burden on the self-excitation capacitor banks and better utilisation of available wind energy, while limiting the DC link voltage within a preset voltage threshold. The simulated results are experimentally verified and found to give good power tracking performance     

A novel line drop secondary voltage control algorithm for variable speed wind turbines

This paper addresses the design and implementation of the line drop secondary voltage control (LDSVC) for the doubly fed induction generator‐wind turbine (DFIG‐WT) complemented with reactive power allocation algorithm to achieve more efficient voltage regulation, reactive power compensation and to enhance the transient stability margin of the electric power system. The LDSVC is used to generate the local voltage reference, providing an improvement for overall voltage profile. The paper presents the influence of the integration of variable speed wind turbines‐based doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) while employing LDSVC for increasing the transient stability margin. This paper proposes an improved voltage control scheme, based on a secondary voltage controller complemented with an automatic gain controller (AGC). The scheme is applied to a wind energy system incorporating DFIG‐based wind turbines. The controller structure is developed and the performance of the self‐tuning AGC scheme is developed and analysed. The proposed controller is tested in response to system contingencies for different short circuit ratios. The performance of the secondary voltage control without and with AGC is verified. The influence of the AGC in improving the transient response and damping of voltage oscillations is verified. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于OLTC和SVC的光伏并网发电电压控制技术研究

提出一种利用调节有载调压变压器（on-load tap changer, OLTC）分接头来改善分布式光伏电源接入配电网时对电压分布影响的控制技术;并考虑在单一调节OLTC无法实现的场合,通过有载调压变压器（OLTC）与静止无功补偿装置（Static Var Compensator, SVC）复合式调节,使电压偏差控制在允许的范围之内。仿真结果表明,该综合控制技术能够有效的改善分布式光伏电源接入配电网对电压分布的影响。     

10 kV电容器采用小容量多分组方案分析

针对当前10 kV电容器组容量日趋增大,电容器组的频繁投切对母线电压波动及电能质量带来不利影响的现状,通过分析电容器组分组容量与调压幅度的关系、电容器组分组容量与电容器装置利用率的关系,确定电容器组的分组原则,从而更好地满足系统电压和无功功率调控要求.分析认为,采用2.4 Mvar＋1.2Mvar×3组设计方案,优于2.4 Mvar＋3.6 Mvar方案.案例证实了采用小容量多分组方案,能使电容器分组投切时电压波动小、调节特性平稳,还能减少分接头调节档位次数,延长主变有载调压分接开关的寿命.     

A control scheme to enhance low voltage ride‐through of brushless doubly‐fed induction generators

The use of brushless doubly‐fed induction generator has been recently proposed for wind turbines because of its variable speed operation with fractional size converter without the need to brush and slip ring. This paper introduces a control scheme to improve low voltage ride‐through capability of doubly‐fed induction generator considering grid code requirements. The proposed control strategy is based on analysis of flux linkages and back electromotive forces and intends to retain the control‐winding current below the safety limit (typically 2 pu) during severe voltage dips. The time‐domain simulations validate effectiveness of the proposed scheme to protect the converter against failure as well as support reactive power required by German grid code. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Co‐ordinated voltage control of DFIG wind turbines in uninterrupted operation during grid faults

Emphasis in this article is on the design of a co‐ordinated voltage control strategy for doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbines that enhances their capability to provide grid support during grid faults. In contrast to its very good performance in normal operation, the DFIG wind turbine concept is quite sensitive to grid faults and requires special power converter protection. The fault ride‐through and grid support capabilities of the DFIG address therefore primarily the design of DFIG wind turbine control with special focus on power converter protection and voltage control issues. A voltage control strategy is designed and implemented in this article, based on the idea that both converters of the DFIG (i.e. rotor‐side converter and grid‐side converter) participate in the grid voltage control in a co‐ordinated manner. By default the grid voltage is controlled by the rotor‐side converter as long as it is not blocked by the protection system, otherwise the grid‐side converter takes over the voltage control. Moreover, the article presents a DFIG wind farm model equipped with a grid fault protection system and the described co‐ordinated voltage control. The whole DFIG wind farm model is implemented in the power system simulation toolbox PowerFactory DIgSILENT. The DFIG wind farm ride‐through capability and contribution to voltage control in the power system are assessed and discussed by means of simulations with the use of a transmission power system generic model developed and delivered by the Danish Transmission System Operator Energinet.dk. The simulation results show how a DFIG wind farm equipped with voltage control can help a nearby active stall wind farm to ride through a grid fault, without implementation of any additional ride‐through control strategy in the active stall wind farm. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.