Experimental Study on Cutting Forces and Surface Integrity in High-Speed Side Milling of Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy

This article is concerned with the cutting forces and surface integrity in high-speed side milling of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. The experiments were conducted with coated carbide cutting tools under dry cutting conditions. The effects of cutting parameters on the cutting forces, tool wear and surface integrity (including surface roughness, microhardness and microstructure beneath the machined surface) were investigated. The velocity effects are focused on in the present study. The experimental results show that the cutting forces in three directions increase with cutting speed, feed per tooth and depth of cut (DoC). The widths of flank wear VB increases rapidly with the increasing cutting speed. The surface roughness initially decreases and presents a minimum value at the cutting speed 200 m/min, and then increases with the cutting speed. The microstructure beneath the machined surfaces had minimal or no obvious plastic deformation under the present milling conditions. Work hardening leads to an increment in micro-hardness on the top surface. Furthermore, the hardness of machined surface decreases with the increase of cutting speed and feed per tooth due to thermal softening effects. The results indicated that the cutting speed 200 m/min could be considered as a critical value at which both relatively low cutting forces and improved surface quality can be obtained.     

Cutting performance of coated carbide tools in high-speed face milling of AISI H13 hardened steel

In the present study, high-speed face milling of AISI H13 hardened steel was conducted to investigate the cutting performance of coated carbide tools. The characteristics of chip morphology, tool life, tool wear mechanisms, and surface roughness were analyzed and compared for different cutting conditions. It was found that as the cutting speed increased, the chip morphology evolved in different ways under different milling conditions (up, down, and symmetric milling). Individual saw-tooth segments and sphere-like chip formed at the cutting speed of 2,500 m/min. Owing to the relatively low mechanical load, longest tool life can be obtained in up milling when the cutting speed was no more than 1,000 m/min. As the cutting speed increased over 1,500 m/min, highest tool life existed in symmetric milling. When the cutting speed was 500 m/min, owing to the higher mechanical load, the flaked region on the tool rake face in symmetric milling was much larger than that in up and down milling. There was no obvious wear on the tool rake face at the cutting speed of 2,500 m/min due to the short tool-chip contact length. In symmetric milling, the delamination of tool material, which did not occur in up and down milling, was caused by the relatively large cutting force. Abrasion had great effect on the tool flank wear in symmetric milling. With the increment of cutting speed, surface roughness decreased first and then increased rapidly. Lowest surface roughness can be obtained at the cutting speed of about 1,500 m/min.     

An association rule mining and maintaining approach in dynamic database for aiding product–service system conceptual design

Many previous researches on high-speed machining have been conducted to pursue high machining efficiency and accuracy. In the present study, the characteristics of cutting forces, surface roughness, and chip formation obtained in high and ultra high-speed face milling of AISI H13 steel (46–47 HRC) are experimentally investigated. It is found that the ultra high cutting speed of 1,400?m/min can be considered as a critical value, at which relatively low mechanical load, good surface finish, and high machining efficiency are expected to arise at the same time. When the cutting speed adopted is below 1,400?m/min, the contribution order of the cutting parameters for surface roughness Ra is axial depth of cut, cutting speed, and feed rate. As the cutting speed surpasses 1,400?m/min, the order is cutting speed, feed rate, and axial depth of cut. The developing trend of the surface roughness obtained at different cutting speeds can be estimated by means of observing the variation of the chip shape and chip color. It is concluded that when low feed rate, low axial depth of cut, and cutting speed below 1,400?m/min are adopted, surface roughness Ra of the whole machined surface remains below 0.3?μm, while cutting speed above 1,400?m/min should be avoided even if the feed rate and axial depth of cut are low.     

Surface integrity in broaching of AA 7075-T651 aluminum alloys

Special features as noncircular hole shapes are manufactured by the broaching process. The rise per tooth varies in different zones of the broaching tool. In this article, the effects of the two main process parameters (cutting speed and rise per tooth) on surface integrity (surface roughness, micro-hardness) and chip morphology will be studied. The experiments have been done on AA7075-T651 aluminum alloy. To investigate the effect of rise per tooth, one of the cutting edges of broaching tool is separated and the broaching process is implemented for nine samples. The samples are broached with three different cutting speeds (6, 12 and 18 m/min) and three rise per tooth (0.02, 0.05 and 0.1?mm). Also, the effect of cutting speed is investigated with a broaching needle (rise per tooth 0.1?mm). The results show that best surface roughness is obtained at cutting speed 12 m/min. The surface roughness will be improved by decreasing the rise per tooth. Also, the surface hardness decreases by increasing the cutting speed. The surface integrity (surface roughness and surface hardness) is comparable for single edge cutting tool and broaching needle. Continuous chips are formed during the broaching process and decreasing the cutting speed cause more compression of the chips.     

Influence of ultrasonic vibrations on side milling of AISI 420 stainless steel

Characteristics of one-dimensional ultrasonic-assisted side milling of AISI 420 stainless steel have been investigated in this paper. Cutting force in ultrasonic-assisted milling (UAM) has been modeled, and new relations for critical cutting speed and undeformed chip thickness have been presented. Based on analytic relations, it can be inferred that in successive end mill revolutions, contrary to conventional milling (CM), cutting forces in UAM have different magnitudes. In order to experimentally investigate the cutting forces and the workpiece surface roughness, CM and UAM processes have been applied and compared in certain cutting conditions. Experimental results indicate that the average of cutting forces in UAM is less than in CM, and depending on cutting parameters, workpiece surface roughness in UAM can improve. During small value of feed, the influence of ultrasonic vibrations on the decrease of cutting forces is more noticeable in up milling, while during larger feed, employing UAM is more effective in down milling. It seems that for low feed rates, high cutting speeds and up milling process, the effect of ultrasonic vibrations on the surface roughness is more noticeable.     

高速铣削超高强度钢的切削力及表面粗糙度研究

选用涂层硬质合金刀具对300M超高强度钢进行高速铣削试验,通过单因素试验和多因素正交试验法,得出铣削参数(主轴转速、每齿进给量、铣削深度)对切削力及表面粗糙度的影响规律及主次关系。对正交试验结果做最小二乘法分析,建立切削力及表面粗糙度与铣削参数之间的经验模型;对经验模型的回归方程及系数做显著性检验,并对其进行参数优化,得出铣削参数的最优组合。结果表明:主轴转速和铣削深度对切削力的作用较大,而每齿进给量对其影响相对较弱;每齿进给量对表面粗糙度作用最强,铣削深度次之,主轴转速对其作用最弱。     

On the machining characteristics of H13 tool steel in different hardness states in ball end milling

This paper investigates and compares the machining characteristics of AISI H13 tool steel in hardness states of 41 and 20 HRC in the ball end milling process. The machining characteristics are illustrated through three types of process outputs from the milling experiments: the milling force, the chip form, and the surface roughness. Characteristic differences in these process outputs are shown to reflect the hardness effect of the tool steel on the ball end milling process. The mechanistic phenomena of the milling process are revealed by the six shearing and ploughing cutting constants extracted from the milling forces. The experimental results show that all the cutting constants of the softer tool steel are greater than those of the hard steel, indicating that higher cutting and frictional energies are required in the chip shearing as well as in the nose ploughing processes of the softer tool steel. The higher cutting energy is also attested by the more severely deformed, shorter, and thicker chips of the softer steel. Surface roughness of the hard steel is shown to be considerably better than that of the soft steel at all cutting speeds and feed rates and is independent of cutting speed, whereas the surface roughness of the softer steel is significantly improved with increasing cutting speed.     

正交车铣TC4钛合金表面粗糙度分析

车铣加工技术是近年发展起来的先进切削加工技术之一。本文采用多因素正交试验法,进行了一系列的正交车铣TC4钛合金切削试验,研究了车铣切削用量与表面粗糙度之间的变化规律。通过方差分析确定了各因素对表面粗糙度的影响大小的主次顺序,每齿进给量和偏心量对表面粗糙度的影响较大。采用回归分析原理,建立了表面粗糙度的预测模型,根据统计检验结果表明,已加工表面粗糙度预测模型呈高度显著检验状态,具有很高的可信度。     

Surface topography and roughness of high-speed milled AlMn1Cu

The aluminum alloy AlMn1Cu has been broadly applied for functional parts production because of its good properties. But few researches about the machining mechanism and the surface roughness were reported. The high-speed milling experiments are carried out in order to improve the machining quality and reveal the machining mechanism. The typical topography features of machined surface are observed by scan electron microscope(SEM). The results show that the milled surface topography is mainly characterized by the plastic shearing deformation surface and material piling zone. The material flows plastically along the end cutting edge of the flat-end milling tool and meanwhile is extruded by the end cutting edge, resulting in that materials partly adhere to the machined surface and form the material piling zone. As the depth of cut and the feed per tooth increase, the plastic flow of materials is strengthened and the machined surface becomes rougher. However, as the cutting speed increases, the plastic flow of materials is weakened and the milled surface becomes smoother. The cutting parameters (e.g. cutting speed, feed per tooth and depth of cut) influencing the surface roughness are analyzed. It can be concluded that the roughness of the machined surface formed by the end cutting edge is less than that by the cylindrical cutting edge when a cylindrical flat-end mill tool is used for milling. The proposed research provides the typical topography features of machined surface of the anti-rust aluminum alloy AlMn1Cu in high speed milling.     

Surface roughness analysis of hardened steel after high-speed milling

The work refers to analysis of various factors affecting surface roughness after end milling of hardened steel in high-speed milling (HSM) conditions. Investigations of milling parameters (cutting speed v(c) , axial depth of cut a(p) ) and the process dynamics that influence machined surface roughness were presented, and a surface roughness model, including cutter displacements, was elaborated. The work also involved analysis of surface profile charts from the point of view of vibrations and cutting force components. The research showed that theoretic surface roughness resulting from the kinematic-geometric projection of cutting edge in the workpiece is significantly different from the reality. The dominant factor in the research was not feed per tooth f(z) (according to the theoretical model) but dynamical phenomena and feed per revolution f.     

高强度钢高速加工时切削力尺度效应特征规律研究

在切削速度118m/min～463m/min,每齿进给量0.078mm/z～0.2mm/z,切削深度0.2mm～1mm范围内,研究高速端面铣削某新型高强度钢材料(>42HRc、抗拉强度σb>1.2GPa)过程中切削力的变化规律,考察切削用量对铣削力的交互影响与尺度效应规律,并从切削变形机理上进行讨论与分析,使用残差分析与最小二乘法等统计方法,建立切削力与切削用量经验公式。研究结果表明:高速铣削时,切削深度、每齿进给量和两者之间的交互作用为对主切削力有显著影响的效应因素;该类型高强度钢的单位铣削力为45调质钢的1.0729倍～1.7917倍;非自由切削过程在高速切削条件下将会引发切削力的尺度效应。     

Geometry of chip formation in circular end milling

Machining along continuous circular tool-path trajectories avoids tool stoppage and even feed rate variation. This helps particularly in high-speed milling by reducing the effect of the machine tool mechanical structure and cutting process dynamics. With the increase in popularity of this machining concept, the need for detailed study of a valid chip formation in circular end milling is becoming necessary for accurate kinematic and dynamic modeling of the cutting process. In this paper, chip formation during circular end milling is studied with a major focus on feed per tooth and undeformed chip thickness along with their analytical derivations and numerical solutions. At first, the difference in the feed per tooth formulation for end milling along linear and circular tool-path trajectories is presented. In the next step, valid formulation of the undeformed chip thickness in circular end milling is derived by considering an epitrochoidal tooth trajectory with a wide range of the tool-path radius. The complex transcendental equations encountered in the derivation are dealt with, by a case-based approach to obtain closed-form analytical solutions. The analytical solutions of undeformed chip thickness are validated with results of numerical simulations of tool and tooth trajectories for circular end milling and also compared to the linear end milling. The close resemblance between analytical and numerical calculations of the undeformed chip thickness in circular end milling suggests validity of the proposed analytical formulations. As a case study, the cutting forces in circular end milling are calculated based on the derived chip thickness formulations and an existing mechanistic model. The calculation results reiterate the need of taking into account adjusted feed per tooth and valid chip thickness formulations in circular end milling, especially for small tool-path radii, for more realistic process modeling.     

TC17钛合金低温铣削表面粗糙度预测

进行了TC17钛合金低温铣削试验,研究了不同切削条件下的已加工表面粗糙度.采用回归分析方法建立了表面粗糙度经验模型,研究了射流温度、每齿进给量、铣削速度和径向切削深度对表面粗糙度的影响规律.基于BP神经网络建立了表面粗糙度预测模型,并与经验模型进行了对比分析.研究结果表明,基于经验模型表面粗糙度值与参数间存在强相关性(...     

INDUCTION-HEATED TOOL MACHINING OF ELASTOMERS—PART 2: CHIP MORPHOLOGY, CUTTING FORCES, AND MACHINED SURFACES

The induction-heated tool and cryogenically cooled workpiece are investigated for end milling of elastomers to generate desirable shape and surface roughness. Elastomer end milling experiments are conducted to study effects of the cutting speed, tool heating, and workpiece cooling on the chip formation, cutting forces, groove width, and surface roughness. At high cutting speed, smoke is generated and becomes an environmental hazard. At low cutting speeds, induction heated tool, if properly utilized, has demonstrated to be beneficial for the precision machining of elastomer with better surface roughness and dimensional control. Frequency analysis of cutting forces shows that the soft elastomer workpiece has low frequency vibration, which can be correlated to the surface machining marks. The width of end-milled grooves is only 68 to 78% of the tool diameter. The correlation between the machined groove width and cutting force reveals the importance of the workpiece compliance to precision machining of elastomer. This study also explores the use of both contact profilometer and non-contact confocal microscope to measure the roughness of machined elastomer surfaces. The comparison of measurement results shows the advantages and limitations of both measurement methods.     

Optimization of milling parameters using artificial neural network and artificial immune system

The present paper is an attempt to predict the effective milling parameters on the final surface roughness of the work-piece made of Ti-6Al-4V using a multi-perceptron artificial neural network. The required data were collected during the experiments conducted on the mentioned material. These parameters include cutting speed, feed per tooth and depth of cut. A relatively newly discovered optimization algorithm entitled, artificial immune system is used to find the best cutting conditions resulting in minimum surface roughness. Finally, the process of validation of the optimum condition is presented.     

Theoretical modelling of cutting forces in helical end milling with cutter runout

A theoretical cutting force model for helical end milling with cutter runout is developed using a predictive machining theory, which predicts cutting forces from the input data of workpiece material properties, tool geometry and cutting conditions. In the model, a helical end milling cutter is discretized into a number of slices along the cutter axis to account for the helix angle effect. The cutting action for a tooth segment in the first slice is modelled as oblique cutting with end cutting edge effect and tool nose radius effect, whereas the cutting actions of other slices are modelled as oblique cutting without end cutting edge effect and tool nose radius effect. The influence of cutter runout on chip load is considered based on the true tooth trajectories. The total cutting force is the sum of the forces at all the cutting slices of the cutter. The model is verified with experimental milling tests.     

TiAlN涂层铣刀铣削9SiCr钢切削性能试验研究

采用TiAlN涂层刀具,对合金工具钢9SiCr的高速铣削加工性能进行试验研究,分析铣削速度对铣削力、表面粗糙 度、表面形貌、切屑变形和刀具的磨损的影响。并获得能够保证对其进行高效高精度加工的合理工艺参数。     

INDUCTION-HEATED TOOL MACHINING OF ELASTOMERS—PART 2: CHIP MORPHOLOGY,CUTTING FORCES,AND MACHINED SURFACES

ABSTRACT

The induction-heated tool and cryogenically cooled workpiece are investigated for end milling of elastomers to generate desirable shape and surface roughness. Elastomer end milling experiments are conducted to study effects of the cutting speed, tool heating, and workpiece cooling on the chip formation, cutting forces, groove width, and surface roughness. At high cutting speed, smoke is generated and becomes an environmental hazard. At low cutting speeds, induction heated tool, if properly utilized, has demonstrated to be beneficial for the precision machining of elastomer with better surface roughness and dimensional control. Frequency analysis of cutting forces shows that the soft elastomer workpiece has low frequency vibration, which can be correlated to the surface machining marks. The width of end-milled grooves is only 68 to 78% of the tool diameter. The correlation between the machined groove width and cutting force reveals the importance of the workpiece compliance to precision machining of elastomer. This study also explores the use of both contact profilometer and non-contact confocal microscope to measure the roughness of machined elastomer surfaces. The comparison of measurement results shows the advantages and limitations of both measurement methods.     

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON SURFACE INTEGRITY OF END MILLING NICKEL-BASED ALLOY— INCONEL 718

Inconel 718 is a typical difficult-to-machine material, and its high speed end milling process has wide applications in manufacturing parts from aerospace and power industry. Surface integrity of these parts greatly influences the final characteristics. This paper presents an experimental investigation to evaluate surface integrity behaviors in high speed end milling of Inconel 718 with finishing cutting parameters in terms of surface topography, surface roughness Ra, residual stresses, subsurface microstructure, and microhardness. The results show that abraded marks can be observed on the machined surfaces, and high cutting speed is advisable to get better surface topography and roughness quality. Due to high cutting temperature, residual stress is mainly high tensile stress. After increasing the cutting speed beyond 80m/min, the cutting forces hardly increased and the chips take away more cutting heat, which leads to that the residual stress barely increases. Microstructures in subsurface layers have only slight deformations after high speed milling, and there was also no obvious difference when the cutting speed increased beyond 80m/min against the microhardness in subsurface increases together with the cutting speed.     

响应曲面法优化超高强度钢铣削加工切削参数的研究

通过试验对30CrMnSiNi2A钢高速干铣的表面粗糙度进行研究。在因子试验研究的基础上利用响应曲面法考察了切削速度、进给量、切深和切宽四个因素对表面粗糙度的影响规律并寻求最优工艺参数。结果表明切削速度对表面粗糙度值影响最大,响应曲面法用于超高强度钢的高速铣削参数优化可行有效。