Does self-threat promote social connection? The role of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth.

Six studies examined the social motivations of people with high self-esteem (HSE) and low self-esteem (LSE) following a threat to a domain of contingent self-worth. Whether people desired social contact following self-threat depended on an interaction between an individual's trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth. HSE participants who strongly based self-worth on appearance sought to connect with close others following a threat to their physical attractiveness. LSE participants who staked self-worth on appearance wanted to avoid social contact and, instead, preferred a less interpersonally risky way of coping with self-threat (wanting to enhance their physical attractiveness). Implications for theories of self-esteem, motivation, and interpersonal processes are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of social perceptions and self-concept in bulimia nervosa

Although numerous studies have examined the families of bulimic individuals, none have explicitly addressed how family factors relate to self-concept among patients with bulimia. This study used L. Benjamin's' structural analysis of social behavior (1974) rating scales to assess how perceptions of parental relationships relate to self-concept. The results indicate that female patients with bulimia perceive both parents as hostilely disengaged. Furthermore, the self-concepts of patients with bulimia were significantly associated with perceptions of paternal attack/friendliness, which differentiated them from control participants. The results are discussed in terms of the possible relations between family factors and self-concept in bulimia.     

Gender differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms.

Evolutionary and sociocultural theories of mate selection preferences contend that men place greater value on physical attractiveness than do women. Thus, meta-analyses were conducted of findings from 5 research paradigms that have examined the hypothesis: (1) questionnaire studies, (2) analyses of lonely hearts advertisements, (3) studies that correlate attractiveness with opposite sex popularity, (4) studies that correlate attractiveness with liking by a dyadic interaction partner, and (5) experiments that manipulate the attractiveness and similarity of an opposite sex stranger. The anticipated sex difference emerged in all 5 meta-analyses, although it was larger in research that examined self-reports than in research that examined social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social identity and threat on self-esteem and group attributions.

Two studies were conducted to examine reactions and coping responses to a threatened group identity. In both studies, participants were asked to read a (fictitious) report that varied whether their group received a good or bad evaluation. In Study 2, the report also gave an internal or external reason for the rating. Study 1 showed that participants made more positive affirmations about an important group membership when their group had been threatened. They also made an equal number of internal and external attributions when they identified strongly with their group. Study 2 showed that participants who were given a group-serving attribution when their group had been threatened had higher self-esteem than those not given a group-serving attribution, especially if they identified strongly with their group. These results are discussed in the context of social identity theory and biased information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification of self-verification in the formation of children's academic self-concept.

From a self-verification perspective, individuals strive to maintain a consistent self-concept, even if that self-concept is negative. However, most of the research has involved adults and social relationships. In contrast, this study evaluated whether self-verification was also present with children and in the formation of academic self-concept. This was done with a sample of preadolescent students with low and high reading and mathematics performance. There was support for the self-verification notion that individuals with low achievement in one academic domain reduce their self-concept in another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical attractiveness, physical effectiveness, and self-concept in late adolescents

The differential role of various body attitudes in predicting the self-concepts of late adolescents (124 males and 218 females), enrolled in introductory psychology courses, was assessed. Subjects rated 24 body characteristics in terms of 1) how physically attractive they assumed these parts of their bodies were, and 2) how physically effective they assumed them to be; subjects also responded to a short self-concept scale. In accordance with the theory of Erikson (1968) and of McCandless (1970), it was expected that attractiveness attitudes should contribute more to the self-concepts of females than should effectiveness attitudes, while a reverse pattern of interrelatedness was expected for males. Results indicated a higher correspondence between what are seen as attractive body parts and what are viewed as effective body components for males than for females. Moreover, findings from step-wise multiple regression analyses of each sex group's ratings of the body parts for attractiveness and effectiveness, respectively, each with the criterion variable constituting mean self-concept score, were consistent with expectations. For females, the multiple correlation between attractiveness ratings and self-concept was greater than the multiple correlation between effectiveness ratings and self-concept, and more attractiveness variables than effectiveness variables were significant predictors of self-concept. The converse of these findings were obtained with the males' data. The relevance of these results for theories of personality development were discussed.     

Aggressive school troublemakers and victims: A longitudinal model examining the pivotal role of self-concept.

Aggressive Troublemaker (getting into physical fights, getting into trouble, being seen as a troublemaker, and being punished for getting into trouble) and Victim (being threatened with harm, not feeling safe) factors were related to 3 components of self-concept (General, Same Sex, and Opposite Sex) based on the large, nationally representative National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 database. At 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-grade levels, Troublemaker and Victim constructs were reasonably stable over time and moderately positively correlated (many students were both troublemakers and victims). The Victim factor was negatively correlated with self-concept and had negative effects on subsequent self-concept. Whereas the Troublemaker factor was also correlated somewhat negatively with self-concept, it had small positive effects on subsequent self-concept: Low self-concept may trigger troublemaking behavior in a possibly successful attempt to enhance subsequent self-concept. Although boys had higher Troublemaker and Victim scores than did girls, the effects of these constructs on subsequent self-concepts were similar for boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond initial attraction: Physical attractiveness in newlywed marriage.

Physical appearance plays a crucial role in shaping new relationships, but does it continue to affect established relationships, such as marriage? In the current study, the authors examined how observer ratings of each spouse's facial attractiveness and the difference between those ratings were associated with (a) observations of social support behavior and (b) reports of marital satisfaction. In contrast to the robust and almost universally positive effects of levels of attractiveness on new relationships, the only association between levels of attractiveness and the outcomes of these marriages was that attractive husbands were less satisfied. Further, in contrast to the importance of matched attractiveness to new relationships, similarity in attractiveness was unrelated to spouses' satisfaction and behavior. Instead, the relative difference between partners' levels of attractiveness appeared to be most important in predicting marital behavior, such that both spouses behaved more positively in relationships in which wives were more attractive than their husbands, but they behaved more negatively in relationships in which husbands were more attractive than their wives. These results highlight the importance of dyadic examinations of the effects of spouses' qualities on their marriages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of self-concept in vocational theory.

R. G. Pryor (see record 1985-14577-001) argues that more attention should be devoted to the study of the structural properties of the self and less to the study of the self-concept, because the self-concept lacks explanatory power and reliance on it obfuscates attempts to derive a genuinely causal explanation of human behavior. The major problem with the self-concept, Pryor argues, is that it is relational and therefore is not genuinely causal. However, the present author argues that the relational aspects of the self-concept are in fact useful in explaining the paths individuals take to fulfill their more basic needs and goals. Although the self-concept has promise for explaining vocational behavior, it nevertheless has not been well-conceptualized or well-measured in vocational psychology. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor qualities: Impact of subjects' self-concepts, counselor gender, and counselor introductions.

Examined the extent to which a counselor quality (reputed expertise) and a client quality (self-concept) were interactive with counselor gender and with each other as determinants of Ss' perceptions of the counselor. 105 male undergraduates were split into high- or low-self-concept groups according to their scores on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and listened to an audiotape of a male or female counselor who was introduced as an expert counselor or a nonexpert counselor or who was given no introduction. Ss then used the Counselor Rating Form to rate the counselor. Consistent with previous research, the expertness manipulation affected ratings of the counselor, whereas counselor gender alone did not. No interaction between counselor gender and expertness introduction was obtained, although one interaction (for attractiveness) was obtained for S self-concept by expertness introduction. Three-way interactions were obtained for perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. These results suggest that although S self-concept alone does not determine perceptions of the counselor, it is one recipient characteristic that interacts with the counselor characteristics of gender and ascribed expertise. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When Gulliver travels: Social context, psychological closeness, and self-appraisals.

Four studies examined how the characteristics of others affect people's self-appraisals. Ss viewed photographs of physically attractive or unattractive targets, then rated their own attractiveness. Study 1 found evidence for a contrast effect: Ss' self-appraisals were more favorable after viewing an unattractive same-sex target than after viewing an attractive same-sex target. Study 2 manipulated psychological closeness by varying the degree to which the S and the target shared similar attitudes and values. Although contrast effects occurred when the S and the target were dissimilar, the reverse tended to be true when the S and the target were related by virtue of their perceived similarity. Two additional studies extended these results, using a different operational definition of psychological closeness. Findings indicate that psychological closeness determines how other people's characteristics affect the self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power and affordances: When the situation has more power over powerful than powerless individuals.

Six studies examined how power affects responses to situational affordances. Participants were assigned to a powerful or a powerless condition and were exposed to various situations that afford different classes of behavior. Study 1 examined behavior intentions for weekdays and weekends. Studies 2 and 3 focused on responses to imaginary social and work situations. Study 4 examined planned behavior for winter and summer days. Finally, Studies 5 and 6 examined behavior and attention in the presence of situation-relevant and irrelevant information. Consistently across these studies, powerful individuals acted more in situation-consistent ways, and less in situation-inconsistent ways, compared with powerless individuals. These findings are interpreted as a result of the greater tendency for powerful individuals to process information selectively in line with the primary factors that drive cognition, such as affordances. One consequence of these findings is that powerful individuals change behavior across situations more than powerless individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting stress, perceived parenting behaviors, and adolescent self-concept in European American families.

This study assesses whether the stresses associated with parenting a child are indirectly related to adolescent self-concept through parenting behaviors. We examined longitudinal associations among mothers' and fathers' parenting stress at age 10, children's perceptions of parenting at age 10, and adolescents' self-concept at age 14 in 120 European American families. Mothers' and fathers' parenting stress was related to children's perceptions of acceptance and psychologically controlling behavior, and psychologically controlling behavior (and lax control for fathers) was related to adolescent self-concept. We further examined which domains of parenting stress and perceived parenting behaviors were associated with adolescents' scholastic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. Parenting stress was related to specific parenting behaviors, which were, in turn, related to specific domains of self-concept in adolescence. Parenting stress appears to exert its effects on early adolescent self-concept indirectly through perceived parenting behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factors underlying expectancies of success and achievement: The influential roles of need for cognition and general or specific self-concepts.

It has been assumed that task-specific self-concepts are more important than general self-concepts in determining expectancies of success and subsequent achievement. The authors argue here that the influence varies depending on need for cognition (NFC). Findings from Study 1 (N = 104) showed that expectancies of success in an academic task could be predicted from specific self-concept for individuals with a high NFC and from general self-concept for individuals with a low NFC. In Study 2 (N = 193), where cognitive load was manipulated, given a high cognitive load, only general self-concept was predictive of success expectancies, independent of NFC. In Study 3 (N = 197), given a high relevance of correct expectancy ratings, only specific self-concept was predictive of expectancies and actual achievement, independent of NFC. In Studies 4 and 5, the results from Study 1 concerning the prediction of expectancies (as well as achievement) reappeared in a physical and a social domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

STEMing the tide: Using ingroup experts to inoculate women's self-concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).

Three studies tested a stereotype inoculation model, which proposed that contact with same-sex experts (advanced peers, professionals, professors) in academic environments involving science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) enhances women's self-concept in STEM, attitudes toward STEM, and motivation to pursue STEM careers. Two cross-sectional controlled experiments and 1 longitudinal naturalistic study in a calculus class revealed that exposure to female STEM experts promoted positive implicit attitudes and stronger implicit identification with STEM (Studies 1–3), greater self-efficacy in STEM (Study 3), and more effort on STEM tests (Study 1). Studies 2 and 3 suggested that the benefit of seeing same-sex experts is driven by greater subjective identification and connectedness with these individuals, which in turn predicts enhanced self-efficacy, domain identification, and commitment to pursue STEM careers. Importantly, women's own self-concept benefited from contact with female experts even though negative stereotypes about their gender and STEM remained active. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious moral licensing: The influence of others' past moral actions on moral behavior.

This article investigates the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced behavior on an individual's subsequent behavior. Five studies supported the hypothesis that people are more willing to express prejudiced attitudes when their group members' past behavior has established nonprejudiced credentials. Study 1a showed that participants who were told that their group was more moral than similar other groups were more willing to describe a job as better suited for Whites than for African Americans. In Study 1b, when given information on group members' prior nondiscriminatory behavior (selecting a Hispanic applicant in a prior task), participants subsequently gave more discriminatory ratings to the Hispanic applicant for a position stereotypically suited for majority members (Whites). In Study 2, moral self-concept mediated the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced actions on a participant's subsequent prejudiced behavior such that others' past nonprejudiced actions enhanced the participant's moral self-concept, and this inflated moral self-concept subsequently drove the participant's prejudiced ratings of a Hispanic applicant. In Study 3, the moderating role of identification with the credentialing group was tested. Results showed that participants expressed more prejudiced attitudes toward a Hispanic applicant when they highly identified with the group members behaving in nonprejudiced manner. In Study 4, the credentialing task was dissociated from the participants' own judgmental task, and, in addition, identification with the credentialing group was manipulated rather than measured. Consistent with prior studies, the results showed that participants who first had the opportunity to view an in-group member's nonprejudiced hiring decision were more likely to reject an African American man for a job stereotypically suited for majority members. These studies suggest a vicarious moral licensing effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception of physical attractiveness: Mechanisms involved in the maintenance of romantic relationships.

In 2 studies, factors involved in the perception of attractiveness of opposite-sex persons were examined. Investigation 1 revealed that individuals involved in dating relationships, relative to those not involved in them, tend to perceive opposite-sex persons as less physically and sexually attractive. Investigation 2 revealed that this dating effect was not attributable to differences in physical attractiveness, self-esteem, empathy, self-monitoring, or altruism between individuals who were and those who were not involved in exclusive dating relationships. Moreover, both groups perceived young/same-sex and older/opposite-sex persons as equally attractive, suggesting that the effect is specific to young/opposite-sex persons. Results are discussed in terms of possible proximate and ultimate explanations underlying relationship maintenance processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer Academic Reputation in Elementary School: Associations With Changes in Self-Concept and Academic Skills.

The developmental significance of children's academic reputation among peers was examined in a longitudinal study of 400 children in Grades 3, 4, and 5. In the fall of Year 1, teachers rated children's academic skills and behavior, and peers provided nominations describing classmates' academic skills, social acceptance versus rejection, and aggressive behavior. In the fall and spring of Year 1, children provided reports of their academic self-concept, social self-concept, and global self-worth. In the fall of Year 2, teachers rated children's academic skills. Results indicated that 4 items assessing peer academic reputation formed an internally consistent scale that was correlated moderately and distinctively with teacher-rated academic skills. Peer academic reputation and teacher-rated academic skills each contributed independently to the prediction of fall-to-spring changes in children's academic self-concept. Peer academic reputation and academic self-concept contributed uniquely to the prediction of changes in teacher-rated academic effort and skills over a 1-year period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal ordering of physical self-concept and exercise behavior: Reciprocal effects model and the influence of physical education teachers.

Does prior physical self-concept influence subsequent exercise behavior? On the basis of a large sample of physical education classes (2,786 students, 200 classes, 67 teachers) collected early (Time 1) and late (Time 2) in the school year, findings support a reciprocal effects model in which prior physical self-concept and exercise behavior both influence subsequent physical self-concept and exercise behavior. Whereas variables from the theory of planned behavior (TOPB; behavioral intentions, perceived behavioral control, exercise attitudes) also contributed to the prediction of subsequent exercise behavior, the effect of prior physical self-concept was significant for subsequent outcomes after controlling these variables, suggesting that the TOPB should be supplemented with self-concept measures. On the basis of multilevel models, there were systematic differences in these variables for students taught by different teachers that generalized over time and across different classes taught by the same teacher. Support for the reciprocal effects model was robust. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)